8. Kafli Flashcards
What are memory codes?
Mental representation of some type of information or stimulus
The process that allows us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information is called..?
Memory
Which of the following are stages in the three-stages model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)?
- Working memory
- Long-term memory
- Sensory memory
What is the purpose of storage in memory?
To retain information over time?
What memory is a memory store that temporarily holds and manipulates a limited amount of information?
Short-term or working
Sensory memory:
Briefly holds incoming sensory information
Working memory:
Processes certain information and information retrieve from long term memory
Long term memory:
Stores information for longer periods of time
Mental representation of sensory and semantic information are called memory..?
Codes
Memory allows us to record, ____and later ____ experiences and information
Store, retrieve
When you hear about ‘the magical number seven, plus or minus two,’ you automatically think about
Miller’s conceptualization of short-term memory
When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?
A short-term memory
Which task is typically used to measure the capacity of short-term memory?
Digit span
Which mechanism explains that we can only remember around 7 unrelated letter, but can remember a sentence of 20 letters easily?
Chunking
Lucy is introduced to someone at a party, but only a moment later she realises that she has forgotten his name. This demonstrates that short-term memory has limited..?
Duration
When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?
A short-term memory
Susy was just introduced to a new colleague and is now silently repeating the name of that person. Which working memory component is she using according to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model?
Phonological loop
According to Miller (1956), short-term memory has a capacity of _____ plus or minus two stimuli
Seven
According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, the phonological loop briefly stores mental representations of sounds. The phonological loop consists of which sub-components?
- Articulatory rehearsal systems
- Phonological store
According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, visual and spatial information is briefly stored in the visuospatial..?
Sketchpad
Besides in capacity, short term memory is also limited in..?
Duration
According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, mental representations of sounds are stored in the..?
Phonological loop
According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, the temporary storage space where information from long term memory and from ‘slave systems’ is integrated, manipulated and made available for conscious awareness, is called the..?
Episodic buffer
Which working memory component briefly stores a mental image of a person’s face?
Visuospatial sketchpad
What activity is an example of the function of the central executive, a component of working memory?
You plan and control the steps in a math problem
Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?
It directs overall action
According to Cowan (1999, 2001), the capacity of working memory is restricted to..?
Four chunks of information
Which working memory component plans and controls actions, divides attention between the other sub-components, and integrates information within the episodic buffer?
Central executive
Cowan (1999, 2001) argues that how much information can be kept active in working memory, depends on the allocation of..?
Attention
As far as psychologists know, the storage capacity of long term memory is?
Unlimited
How does the quality of encoding affect retrival?
The better we encode information, the easier it will be to retrieve
Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?
It directs overall action
POTATO: is the word in capital letters?
Structural encoding
HORSE: does the word rhyme with course?
Phonological encoding
TABLE: does the word fit in the sentence ‘he makes the____’?
Semantic encoding
Information processed at what level is easier to remember?
At a deeper level
Tim needs the number of a new restaurant in town he has been hearing about. When he calls a friend to get the number, he repeats it to himself until he can make the call. This approach is called..?
Maintenance rehersal
The three levels of encoding according to Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) theory?
- Semantic encoding
- Structural encoding
- Phonological encoding
Maintenance rehearsal is useful to keep information in..?
Working memory but not in long term memory
Focusing on the meaning of information, or thinking about it in some way, is called..?
Elaborative rehersal
How would you describe Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing theory?
The more intensely we process information, the better we will remember it
Of the following, which is the most effective in terms of getting information into long term memory?
Elaborative rehersal
Why is organising to-be-remembered material in a hierarchy beneficial?
- A hierarchy helps us to see how things are connected
- A hierarchy provides cues that aid in remembering
- There is a visual representation
Simple rote repetition that keeps information active in working memory is called..?
Maintenance rehearsal
Which theory states that encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory?
Dual encoding theory
Which of the following is an example of the method of loci?
I remember my shopping list by linking each item with locations in my house
Verb phrases are memorized better if a learner performs the described action during learning, compared to just getting the verbal information. One possibility is that, besides the verbal information, subject performed tasks have the additional benefit of..?
‘seeing’ and ‘motor feedback’
PEDMAS stands for please my aunt sally. This is used to remember the order of operations in mathematics. This is an example of..?
Acronym and Mnemonic
A mnemonic device where one or more letters are combined is called an..?
Acronym
Memory for a subject performed task is far better than memory for the same information when presented verbally. This is called the..?
Enactment effect
How would you classify hierarchies, chunking, acronyms, visual imagery, and the method of loci?
Mnemonic devices
Chase and Simon (1973) show that the strategies that help chess experts understand a chess board game in mid-game are..?
Schema and chunking
Compared to other people, London taxi drivers show _____ in their hippocampus, the brain area responsible for spatial memory.
Structural changes
A person who displays extraordinary memory skills is called a?
Mnemonist
How does Boscher (2002) define the long term process of developing sophisticated schemas that help encode information into meaningful patterns?
Expertise
Stating that memory is enhanced forming associations between different items in memory implies a..?
Network approach
Long term memory can be represented as an _____ network, which is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts.
Associative
When you think about autumn, related concepts such as leaves and orange are activated. What does this situation represent?
The priming/spreading activation concept of the associative network model
What is the name given to a mathematical model of a collection of artificial neurons that mimic some aspect of learning?
Neural network
What is the model in which each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes called?
- Neural network model
- Connectionist model
Declarative memory includes what memories as subcategories?
- Episodic memory
- Semantic memory
Remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning is an example of..?
Episodic memory
Amanda knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of..?
Procedural memory
In neural network models, each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and..?
Simultaneously activated nodes
What type of memory is comprised entirely of factual knowledge?
Semantic
Anthony knows that Mount Everest is the world’s tallest peak. This is an example of..?
Semantic memory
Tameka knows how to type very well. This is an example of..?
Procedural memory
How is information retrieved from memory?
Information is activated by a retrieval cue accompanied by the process of spread activation
An internal or external stimulus that activates information stored in long term memory is known as a?
Retrieval cue
Arthur’s physics professor uses fire to demonstrate important physics principles, and Arthur finds he can remember there principles better this way. This is an example of the value of..?
Distinctiveness on remembering
Allison cried and found herself hysterically happy at her twin sister’s wedding. She will most likely remember that day because it was..?
Emotionally arousing
Memory researchers have found that ______ or unusual events such as births, deaths, vacations, weddings, accidents and romantic encounters are more likely to be remembered that routine events.
Distinctive
Dana fondly remembers the day she met her husband. This remembrance is an example of..?
Autobiographical memory
What type of memory occurs for distinctive events and creates a clear and vivid picture in your mind?
Flashbulb memory
Regarding the relation between confidence in one’s memory and its actual accuracy, the overall conclusion is that..?
Some studies show a positive relationship, whereas others only found a weak relationship
A memory that is so vivid and clear that it seems like a snapshot of the moment is called a..?
Flashbulb memory
The encoding specificity principle states that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval ______ those that present during encoding
Match
Context-dependent memory shows that it is typically ______ to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded.
Easier
The fact that it is easier to retrieve information when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches the original state during learning, is represented by..?
State dependent memory
Of course, many drugs impair memory. But beside that, the fact that events experienced while in a drugged state are difficult to remember when sober, is explained by a phenomenon of..?
State dependent memory
What describes the fact that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present when the material was learned
The encoding specificity principle
The fact that it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded, demonstrates that memory is..?
Context-dependent
What is the main idea of state-dependent memory?
We are able to retrieve information better when our internal state matches our original state during learning
Alice is in a terrible mood. According to mood congruent recall, she is..?
More likely to remember negative events and more likely to remember material she learned when she was in a bad mood
Ebbinghaus (1964) showed that nonsense material is lost rapidly, and represented this in his classic..?
Forgetting curve
The four causes of forgetting:
- Interference
- Motivated forgetting
- Decay of the memory trace
- Encoding failure
When memory fails not from forgetting but from failure to encode, information was..?
Never stored into long term memory
When you’re happy, you are more likely to recall positive events, and when you are sad, you tend to remember negative events. This describes the concept of..?
Mood congruent
What is suggested by Ebbinghaus’s curve?
- Meaningful material is forgotten more slowly than nonsense material
- Forgetting occurs rapidly at first and slows thereafter
Encoding failure, decay of memory trace, interference, and motivated forgetting are causes of..?
Forgetting
You cannot remember what is on the previous page of a book because your mind was on something else when you were reading it. Here memory failue is the result of..?
An encoding failure
When information is not used and fades away it is said to be lost or forgotten through the process of..?
Decaying
Which of the following is true in regard to interference theory?
- It involves proactive interference
- It involves retroactive interference
Proactive interference occurs when ____ material interferes with recall of _____ material.
Old, new
An example of proactive interference:
Samantha has studied Latin previously and she finds that it interferes with her current study of Greek
Examples of retroactive interference:
- Shelley is learning Russian and finds that she sometimes has problems recalling words from her previously study of french
- Randy has just got a new phone number and remembers it but, when asked to remember his old phone number, he draws a blank
The term decay refers to loss of information due to..?
Lack of use
The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?
Interference theory
What type of interference occurs when material learned in the past interferes with the recall of newer material?
Proactive
Remembering to perform an activity in the future is called..?
Prospective memory
Besides memory, successful prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future) requires other cognitive tasks such as..?
- Planning
- Allocating attention
Memory loss for events that took place before amnesia is called..?
Retrograde amnesia
Memory loss for events that occur after the onset amnesia is called..?
Anterograde
The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?
Interference theory
When rugby players are knocked out by a concussion and regain consciousness, they often cannot remember the events just before being hit. This is a demonstration of..?
Retrograde amnesia
Research showed that severely depressed patients perform less well on prospective memory tasks. What are the possible explanations?
- Depressed patients use attentional resources inefficiently
- Depressed patients have problems with executive functioning
After HM’s brain operation (removal of much of his hippocampus) he was unable to consciously remember new experiences and facts. This is a demonstration of..?
Anterograde amnesia
Which progressive brain disorder is considered to be the most common cause of dementia among elderly adults?
Alzheimer’s disease
How would you describe Alzheimer’s disease?
- It is a progressive brain disorder
- It is the most common cause of dementia
Which neurological problems characterise Alzheimer’s disease?
- Impaired neuronal communication
- Tangles
- Plaques
- Neuronal damage
- Acetylcholine dysfunctioning
- Tissue shrinkage
Researchers have identified one risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, what is it?
Genetic risk factor
Which of the following are early symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?
- Confusion and disorientation
- Forgetfulness and poor judgment
What are possible explanations for infantile amnesia?
- Early memories are not encoded deeply and they lack sufficient retrieval cues
- Because infants lack self-concept, they have no frame of reference to use to organize memories
- Brain regions that encode memories are immature
Prospective memory refers to remembering..?
Future events
Piercing together bits of stored information to complete a sketchy or incomplete memory is called memory..?
Construction
Memory is often reconstructed in such a way that people generalize ideas about how events typically happen. These general ideas about things in the world are called..?
Schemas
When our memories are incomplete or sketchy, we may engage in a process called..?
Memory construction
In an experiment conducted by Barlett, people who had read a story retold it sometime later..?
In a reconstructed way that made sense to them
The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?
The misinformation effect
Which of the following best describe source confusion?
- It can cause misinformation effects
- It is a source monitoring error
- The tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it
A distortion of memory by misleading information that takes place after the event is called the..?
Misinformation effect
What type of information may lead to false memories, and should be taken into account when questioning eye witnesses?
Suggestive information
There were two key factors that may have distorted witnesses’ memories in the case of Father Bernard Pagano..?
- The politeness of the robber was consistent with a schema people have of priests
- Before interviewing witnesses, the police indicated that the robber might be a priest
Our tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it, is called..?
Source confusion
What is true about research findings in regard to children as eyewitnesses?
- Younger children are more susceptible to influence and suggestion that older children
- Suggestive questioning can influence children
- Professionals have difficulty discriminating between true and false reports
What makes it difficult for professionals to reliably distinguish between children’s accurate and false reports of sexual abuse?
After suggestive questioning, children are as confident of their false memories as they are of their accurate ones
According to Loftus and Davis (2006), what kind of memories may result from suggestions of therapists in therapeutic sessions?
False memories
The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?
The misinformation effect
What type of false confessions did psychologist Kassin identify?
- Voluntary false confessions
- Compliant false confessions
- Internalized false confessions
When questioning a child about sexual abuse, the most accurate information is generally gained by using..?
Free recall
In what ways do culture and memory have a reciprocal relationship?
- Culture could not exist without the ability to remember
- Cultural upbringing helps shape schemas
Lashley was searching for a physical trace in the brain that was formed when a memory was formed. He called this trace an..?
Engram
Memories are stored where?
Throughout the brain
Which of the following ways in which the brain is studied in terms of memory?
- Through research on laboratory animals
- By studying people with brain damage
- Through brain imaging
The gradual process by which the brain transfers information into long term memory is called..?
Encoding
In general, where are declarative memories stored? (episodic and semantic memories)
Across distributed cortical areas
Which part of the memory process might be impaired when the thalamus is damaged?
Encoding and retrieval
One way to study where memories are formed and stored is by studying patients who have..?
Brain damage
What plays a key role in the executive functioning component of working memory?
The frontal lobe
Memory consolidation is a gradual process by which the brain..?
Transfers information into long term memory
Which brain area encodes emotionally arousing aspects of events?
Amygdala
Which brain region plays an important part in forming procedural memories, and especially classically conditioned responses?
Cerebellum
What statement best supports what happens when the cerebellum is damaged?
Classically conditioning responses are abolished
Which information is typically encoded by the amygdala?
Arousal and emotions
What is the definition of long term potentiation?
An enduring increase in synaptic strength
The cerebellum plays a key role in which aspect of memory?
Procedural memory and conditioning
When memories form, structural and chemical neuronal changes occur. This in turn, enhances..?
Synaptic transmission
What improves memory and academic learning?
- Overlearning
- Elaboration
- Organization and making connections
- Using imagery
