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Almenn sálfræði > 8. Kafli > Flashcards

8. Kafli Flashcards

1
Q

What are memory codes?

A

Mental representation of some type of information or stimulus

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2
Q

The process that allows us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information is called..?

A

Memory

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3
Q

Which of the following are stages in the three-stages model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)?

A
  • Working memory
  • Long-term memory
  • Sensory memory
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4
Q

What is the purpose of storage in memory?

A

To retain information over time?

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5
Q

What memory is a memory store that temporarily holds and manipulates a limited amount of information?

A

Short-term or working

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6
Q

Sensory memory:

A

Briefly holds incoming sensory information

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7
Q

Working memory:

A

Processes certain information and information retrieve from long term memory

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8
Q

Long term memory:

A

Stores information for longer periods of time

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9
Q

Mental representation of sensory and semantic information are called memory..?

A

Codes

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10
Q

Memory allows us to record, ____and later ____ experiences and information

A

Store, retrieve

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11
Q

When you hear about ‘the magical number seven, plus or minus two,’ you automatically think about

A

Miller’s conceptualization of short-term memory

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12
Q

When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?

A

A short-term memory

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13
Q

Which task is typically used to measure the capacity of short-term memory?

A

Digit span

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14
Q

Which mechanism explains that we can only remember around 7 unrelated letter, but can remember a sentence of 20 letters easily?

A

Chunking

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15
Q

Lucy is introduced to someone at a party, but only a moment later she realises that she has forgotten his name. This demonstrates that short-term memory has limited..?

A

Duration

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16
Q

When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?

A

A short-term memory

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17
Q

Susy was just introduced to a new colleague and is now silently repeating the name of that person. Which working memory component is she using according to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model?

A

Phonological loop

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18
Q

According to Miller (1956), short-term memory has a capacity of _____ plus or minus two stimuli

A

Seven

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19
Q

According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, the phonological loop briefly stores mental representations of sounds. The phonological loop consists of which sub-components?

A
  • Articulatory rehearsal systems

- Phonological store

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20
Q

According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, visual and spatial information is briefly stored in the visuospatial..?

A

Sketchpad

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21
Q

Besides in capacity, short term memory is also limited in..?

A

Duration

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22
Q

According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, mental representations of sounds are stored in the..?

A

Phonological loop

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23
Q

According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, the temporary storage space where information from long term memory and from ‘slave systems’ is integrated, manipulated and made available for conscious awareness, is called the..?

A

Episodic buffer

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24
Q

Which working memory component briefly stores a mental image of a person’s face?

A

Visuospatial sketchpad

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25
Q

What activity is an example of the function of the central executive, a component of working memory?

A

You plan and control the steps in a math problem

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26
Q

Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?

A

It directs overall action

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27
Q

According to Cowan (1999, 2001), the capacity of working memory is restricted to..?

A

Four chunks of information

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28
Q

Which working memory component plans and controls actions, divides attention between the other sub-components, and integrates information within the episodic buffer?

A

Central executive

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29
Q

Cowan (1999, 2001) argues that how much information can be kept active in working memory, depends on the allocation of..?

A

Attention

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30
Q

As far as psychologists know, the storage capacity of long term memory is?

A

Unlimited

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31
Q

How does the quality of encoding affect retrival?

A

The better we encode information, the easier it will be to retrieve

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32
Q

Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?

A

It directs overall action

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33
Q

POTATO: is the word in capital letters?

A

Structural encoding

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34
Q

HORSE: does the word rhyme with course?

A

Phonological encoding

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35
Q

TABLE: does the word fit in the sentence ‘he makes the____’?

A

Semantic encoding

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36
Q

Information processed at what level is easier to remember?

A

At a deeper level

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37
Q

Tim needs the number of a new restaurant in town he has been hearing about. When he calls a friend to get the number, he repeats it to himself until he can make the call. This approach is called..?

A

Maintenance rehersal

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38
Q

The three levels of encoding according to Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) theory?

A
  • Semantic encoding
  • Structural encoding
  • Phonological encoding
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39
Q

Maintenance rehearsal is useful to keep information in..?

A

Working memory but not in long term memory

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40
Q

Focusing on the meaning of information, or thinking about it in some way, is called..?

A

Elaborative rehersal

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41
Q

How would you describe Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing theory?

A

The more intensely we process information, the better we will remember it

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42
Q

Of the following, which is the most effective in terms of getting information into long term memory?

A

Elaborative rehersal

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43
Q

Why is organising to-be-remembered material in a hierarchy beneficial?

A
  • A hierarchy helps us to see how things are connected
  • A hierarchy provides cues that aid in remembering
  • There is a visual representation
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44
Q

Simple rote repetition that keeps information active in working memory is called..?

A

Maintenance rehearsal

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45
Q

Which theory states that encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory?

A

Dual encoding theory

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46
Q

Which of the following is an example of the method of loci?

A

I remember my shopping list by linking each item with locations in my house

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47
Q

Verb phrases are memorized better if a learner performs the described action during learning, compared to just getting the verbal information. One possibility is that, besides the verbal information, subject performed tasks have the additional benefit of..?

A

‘seeing’ and ‘motor feedback’

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48
Q

PEDMAS stands for please my aunt sally. This is used to remember the order of operations in mathematics. This is an example of..?

A

Acronym and Mnemonic

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49
Q

A mnemonic device where one or more letters are combined is called an..?

A

Acronym

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50
Q

Memory for a subject performed task is far better than memory for the same information when presented verbally. This is called the..?

A

Enactment effect

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51
Q

How would you classify hierarchies, chunking, acronyms, visual imagery, and the method of loci?

A

Mnemonic devices

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52
Q

Chase and Simon (1973) show that the strategies that help chess experts understand a chess board game in mid-game are..?

A

Schema and chunking

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53
Q

Compared to other people, London taxi drivers show _____ in their hippocampus, the brain area responsible for spatial memory.

A

Structural changes

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54
Q

A person who displays extraordinary memory skills is called a?

A

Mnemonist

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55
Q

How does Boscher (2002) define the long term process of developing sophisticated schemas that help encode information into meaningful patterns?

A

Expertise

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56
Q

Stating that memory is enhanced forming associations between different items in memory implies a..?

A

Network approach

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57
Q

Long term memory can be represented as an _____ network, which is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts.

A

Associative

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58
Q

When you think about autumn, related concepts such as leaves and orange are activated. What does this situation represent?

A

The priming/spreading activation concept of the associative network model

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59
Q

What is the name given to a mathematical model of a collection of artificial neurons that mimic some aspect of learning?

A

Neural network

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60
Q

What is the model in which each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes called?

A
  • Neural network model

- Connectionist model

61
Q

Declarative memory includes what memories as subcategories?

A
  • Episodic memory

- Semantic memory

62
Q

Remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning is an example of..?

A

Episodic memory

63
Q

Amanda knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of..?

A

Procedural memory

64
Q

In neural network models, each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and..?

A

Simultaneously activated nodes

65
Q

What type of memory is comprised entirely of factual knowledge?

A

Semantic

66
Q

Anthony knows that Mount Everest is the world’s tallest peak. This is an example of..?

A

Semantic memory

67
Q

Tameka knows how to type very well. This is an example of..?

A

Procedural memory

68
Q

How is information retrieved from memory?

A

Information is activated by a retrieval cue accompanied by the process of spread activation

69
Q

An internal or external stimulus that activates information stored in long term memory is known as a?

A

Retrieval cue

70
Q

Arthur’s physics professor uses fire to demonstrate important physics principles, and Arthur finds he can remember there principles better this way. This is an example of the value of..?

A

Distinctiveness on remembering

71
Q

Allison cried and found herself hysterically happy at her twin sister’s wedding. She will most likely remember that day because it was..?

A

Emotionally arousing

72
Q

Memory researchers have found that ______ or unusual events such as births, deaths, vacations, weddings, accidents and romantic encounters are more likely to be remembered that routine events.

A

Distinctive

73
Q

Dana fondly remembers the day she met her husband. This remembrance is an example of..?

A

Autobiographical memory

74
Q

What type of memory occurs for distinctive events and creates a clear and vivid picture in your mind?

A

Flashbulb memory

75
Q

Regarding the relation between confidence in one’s memory and its actual accuracy, the overall conclusion is that..?

A

Some studies show a positive relationship, whereas others only found a weak relationship

76
Q

A memory that is so vivid and clear that it seems like a snapshot of the moment is called a..?

A

Flashbulb memory

77
Q

The encoding specificity principle states that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval ______ those that present during encoding

A

Match

78
Q

Context-dependent memory shows that it is typically ______ to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded.

A

Easier

79
Q

The fact that it is easier to retrieve information when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches the original state during learning, is represented by..?

A

State dependent memory

80
Q

Of course, many drugs impair memory. But beside that, the fact that events experienced while in a drugged state are difficult to remember when sober, is explained by a phenomenon of..?

A

State dependent memory

81
Q

What describes the fact that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present when the material was learned

A

The encoding specificity principle

82
Q

The fact that it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded, demonstrates that memory is..?

A

Context-dependent

83
Q

What is the main idea of state-dependent memory?

A

We are able to retrieve information better when our internal state matches our original state during learning

84
Q

Alice is in a terrible mood. According to mood congruent recall, she is..?

A

More likely to remember negative events and more likely to remember material she learned when she was in a bad mood

85
Q

Ebbinghaus (1964) showed that nonsense material is lost rapidly, and represented this in his classic..?

A

Forgetting curve

86
Q

The four causes of forgetting:

A
  • Interference
  • Motivated forgetting
  • Decay of the memory trace
  • Encoding failure
87
Q

When memory fails not from forgetting but from failure to encode, information was..?

A

Never stored into long term memory

88
Q

When you’re happy, you are more likely to recall positive events, and when you are sad, you tend to remember negative events. This describes the concept of..?

A

Mood congruent

89
Q

What is suggested by Ebbinghaus’s curve?

A
  • Meaningful material is forgotten more slowly than nonsense material
  • Forgetting occurs rapidly at first and slows thereafter
90
Q

Encoding failure, decay of memory trace, interference, and motivated forgetting are causes of..?

A

Forgetting

91
Q

You cannot remember what is on the previous page of a book because your mind was on something else when you were reading it. Here memory failue is the result of..?

A

An encoding failure

92
Q

When information is not used and fades away it is said to be lost or forgotten through the process of..?

A

Decaying

93
Q

Which of the following is true in regard to interference theory?

A
  • It involves proactive interference

- It involves retroactive interference

94
Q

Proactive interference occurs when ____ material interferes with recall of _____ material.

A

Old, new

95
Q

An example of proactive interference:

A

Samantha has studied Latin previously and she finds that it interferes with her current study of Greek

96
Q

Examples of retroactive interference:

A
  • Shelley is learning Russian and finds that she sometimes has problems recalling words from her previously study of french
  • Randy has just got a new phone number and remembers it but, when asked to remember his old phone number, he draws a blank
97
Q

The term decay refers to loss of information due to..?

A

Lack of use

98
Q

The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?

A

Interference theory

99
Q

What type of interference occurs when material learned in the past interferes with the recall of newer material?

A

Proactive

100
Q

Remembering to perform an activity in the future is called..?

A

Prospective memory

101
Q

Besides memory, successful prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future) requires other cognitive tasks such as..?

A
  • Planning

- Allocating attention

102
Q

Memory loss for events that took place before amnesia is called..?

A

Retrograde amnesia

103
Q

Memory loss for events that occur after the onset amnesia is called..?

A

Anterograde

104
Q

The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?

A

Interference theory

105
Q

When rugby players are knocked out by a concussion and regain consciousness, they often cannot remember the events just before being hit. This is a demonstration of..?

A

Retrograde amnesia

106
Q

Research showed that severely depressed patients perform less well on prospective memory tasks. What are the possible explanations?

A
  • Depressed patients use attentional resources inefficiently

- Depressed patients have problems with executive functioning

107
Q

After HM’s brain operation (removal of much of his hippocampus) he was unable to consciously remember new experiences and facts. This is a demonstration of..?

A

Anterograde amnesia

108
Q

Which progressive brain disorder is considered to be the most common cause of dementia among elderly adults?

A

Alzheimer’s disease

109
Q

How would you describe Alzheimer’s disease?

A
  • It is a progressive brain disorder

- It is the most common cause of dementia

110
Q

Which neurological problems characterise Alzheimer’s disease?

A
  • Impaired neuronal communication
  • Tangles
  • Plaques
  • Neuronal damage
  • Acetylcholine dysfunctioning
  • Tissue shrinkage
111
Q

Researchers have identified one risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, what is it?

A

Genetic risk factor

112
Q

Which of the following are early symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?

A
  • Confusion and disorientation

- Forgetfulness and poor judgment

113
Q

What are possible explanations for infantile amnesia?

A
  • Early memories are not encoded deeply and they lack sufficient retrieval cues
  • Because infants lack self-concept, they have no frame of reference to use to organize memories
  • Brain regions that encode memories are immature
114
Q

Prospective memory refers to remembering..?

A

Future events

115
Q

Piercing together bits of stored information to complete a sketchy or incomplete memory is called memory..?

A

Construction

116
Q

Memory is often reconstructed in such a way that people generalize ideas about how events typically happen. These general ideas about things in the world are called..?

A

Schemas

117
Q

When our memories are incomplete or sketchy, we may engage in a process called..?

A

Memory construction

118
Q

In an experiment conducted by Barlett, people who had read a story retold it sometime later..?

A

In a reconstructed way that made sense to them

119
Q

The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?

A

The misinformation effect

120
Q

Which of the following best describe source confusion?

A
  • It can cause misinformation effects
  • It is a source monitoring error
  • The tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it
121
Q

A distortion of memory by misleading information that takes place after the event is called the..?

A

Misinformation effect

122
Q

What type of information may lead to false memories, and should be taken into account when questioning eye witnesses?

A

Suggestive information

123
Q

There were two key factors that may have distorted witnesses’ memories in the case of Father Bernard Pagano..?

A
  • The politeness of the robber was consistent with a schema people have of priests
  • Before interviewing witnesses, the police indicated that the robber might be a priest
124
Q

Our tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it, is called..?

A

Source confusion

125
Q

What is true about research findings in regard to children as eyewitnesses?

A
  • Younger children are more susceptible to influence and suggestion that older children
  • Suggestive questioning can influence children
  • Professionals have difficulty discriminating between true and false reports
126
Q

What makes it difficult for professionals to reliably distinguish between children’s accurate and false reports of sexual abuse?

A

After suggestive questioning, children are as confident of their false memories as they are of their accurate ones

127
Q

According to Loftus and Davis (2006), what kind of memories may result from suggestions of therapists in therapeutic sessions?

A

False memories

128
Q

The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?

A

The misinformation effect

129
Q

What type of false confessions did psychologist Kassin identify?

A
  • Voluntary false confessions
  • Compliant false confessions
  • Internalized false confessions
130
Q

When questioning a child about sexual abuse, the most accurate information is generally gained by using..?

A

Free recall

131
Q

In what ways do culture and memory have a reciprocal relationship?

A
  • Culture could not exist without the ability to remember

- Cultural upbringing helps shape schemas

132
Q

Lashley was searching for a physical trace in the brain that was formed when a memory was formed. He called this trace an..?

A

Engram

133
Q

Memories are stored where?

A

Throughout the brain

134
Q

Which of the following ways in which the brain is studied in terms of memory?

A
  • Through research on laboratory animals
  • By studying people with brain damage
  • Through brain imaging
135
Q

The gradual process by which the brain transfers information into long term memory is called..?

A

Encoding

136
Q

In general, where are declarative memories stored? (episodic and semantic memories)

A

Across distributed cortical areas

137
Q

Which part of the memory process might be impaired when the thalamus is damaged?

A

Encoding and retrieval

138
Q

One way to study where memories are formed and stored is by studying patients who have..?

A

Brain damage

139
Q

What plays a key role in the executive functioning component of working memory?

A

The frontal lobe

140
Q

Memory consolidation is a gradual process by which the brain..?

A

Transfers information into long term memory

141
Q

Which brain area encodes emotionally arousing aspects of events?

A

Amygdala

142
Q

Which brain region plays an important part in forming procedural memories, and especially classically conditioned responses?

A

Cerebellum

143
Q

What statement best supports what happens when the cerebellum is damaged?

A

Classically conditioning responses are abolished

144
Q

Which information is typically encoded by the amygdala?

A

Arousal and emotions

145
Q

What is the definition of long term potentiation?

A

An enduring increase in synaptic strength

146
Q

The cerebellum plays a key role in which aspect of memory?

A

Procedural memory and conditioning

147
Q

When memories form, structural and chemical neuronal changes occur. This in turn, enhances..?

A

Synaptic transmission

148
Q

What improves memory and academic learning?

A
  • Overlearning
  • Elaboration
  • Organization and making connections
  • Using imagery

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