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Almenn sálfræði > 14. Kafli > Flashcards

14. Kafli Flashcards

1
Q

Behaviour related to personality are viewed as being caused primarily by..?

A

Internal rather than environmental factors

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2
Q

The Big Five relates to which domain?

A

Personality

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3
Q

There is a diversity of viewpoints in the study of personality because..?

A

The theorists are describing personality at different levels of analysis

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4
Q

When Freud’s patients who had conversion hysteria were able to re-experience traumatic memories and unacceptable feelings, they were usually sexual or..?

A

Aggressive in nature

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5
Q

Which theorists are more likely to look for the cause of behaviour in an interplay of inner forces that often conflict with one another

A

Psychodynamic

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6
Q

In an attempt to relive his own painful bouts of depression, Freud conducted an extensive self-analysis of his..?

A

Dreams

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7
Q

The assumption of the Big Five it that individual differences in personality can be..?

A

Accounted for by variation along five broad personality dimension

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8
Q

Freud based his theory on..?

A

Careful clinical observations

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9
Q

According to Gordon Allport, the behaviours related to personality are thought to be caused primarily by..?

A

Internal rather than environmental factors

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10
Q

It is thought that there is a diversity of viewpoints in the study of personality because theorists’ different personalities. Which of the following statements would reflect this statement?

A

Dr. Bernard is pessimistic; he views people as generally discontented. Dr. Kelley is an optimistic person; so he views people as generally contented

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11
Q

Identify the experience in Freud’s life that led him to develop his theory?

A

His experience of working with patients with conversion hysteria

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12
Q

Which of the following was a Freudian strategy to unearth the buried contents of the unconscious mind?

A

Dream interpretation

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13
Q

Freud based his theory on careful clinical observations and constantly sought to expand it. Over time, psychoanalysis became..?

A
  • An approach to studying the mind
  • A therapy
  • A theory of personality
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14
Q

The ___ energy, as defined by Freud, is what powers the mind and constantly presses for either direct or indirect release.

A

Psychic

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15
Q

The _____ mind contains memories, feelings and thoughts that we are unaware of at the moment but can be recalled if needed.

A

Preconscious

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16
Q

According to Freud, what generates psychic energy?

A

Instinctual drives

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17
Q

What keeps the mental events in current awareness?

A

Conscious mind

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18
Q

According to Freud, which part of the mind was said to dwarf the other parts of the mind in both size and importance?

A

Unconscious

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19
Q

The personality structure which Freud describes as operating according to the ‘reality principle’ was the..?

A

Ego

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20
Q

According to Freud, which are the ways that the unconscious mind reveals itself?

A
  • Slips of the tongue

- Dreams

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21
Q

According to Freud, personality consists of..?

A

Three separate but interacting structures

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22
Q

Which of the following keeps mental events in current awareness?

A

Conscious mind

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23
Q

Which of the following are components of the personality according to Freud?

A
  • The ego
  • The superego
  • The id
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24
Q

According to the pleasure principle, the ____ seeks immediate gratification regardless of rational considerations.

A

Id

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25
Q

When the id seeks instinctual gratification, the ego will..?

A

Try to postpone it until conditions are appropriate

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26
Q

According to Freud, the dynamics of personality involve a never-ending struggle between instinct and drives in the _____ striving for release and counter forces generated by the ____ and ____ to contain them.

A

Id, ego, superego

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27
Q

According to Freud, which personality structure has no direct contact with reality and functions in a totally irrational manner?

A

Id

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28
Q

According to Freud, the innermost core of the personality is called the?

A

Id

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29
Q

Which of the three personality structures as outlined by Freud would say ‘I want it; I want it now!’?

A

Id

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30
Q

Freud postulated that the ____ is the only personality structure we are born with and is the source of all psychic energy.

A

Id

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31
Q

The ego is thought to have direct contact with..?

A

Reality

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32
Q

The ego function at what level?

A

Conscious

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33
Q

The superego deals primarily with the ___ aspect of our personality structure.

A

Moral

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34
Q

The conflict between the id and the superego is mediated by the..?

A

Ego

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35
Q

When realistic strategies are ineffective in reducing anxiety, the ____ may resort to defence mechanisms.

A

Ego

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36
Q

In ____, a person refuses to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of the environment.

A

Denial

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37
Q

When a person represses the emotion connected with an upsetting event, and deals with the situation as an intellectually interesting event, the person is using what defence mechanism?

A

Intellectualization

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38
Q

According to Freud, which personality structure develops last?

A

Superego

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39
Q

Freud used what term to define the unconscious mental operations that deny or distort reality in order to reduce anxiety?

A

Defence mechanisms

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40
Q

When an unacceptable impulse is repressed and it is then attributed to other people, the ego defence mechanism known as ____ is at play.

A

Projection

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41
Q

When a person refuses to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of an event by using the defence mechanism ‘denial’ what is actually being denied?

A
  • The emotions connected with the event

- The event itself

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42
Q

Dan’s mother just passed away. Rather than dealing with the emotional pain that he is feeling, he is thinking about the meaning of life and death. Which defence mechanism is Dan likely employing?

A

Intellectualization

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43
Q

Mary finds her son stealing money from her purse. Her son in turn says that she never gives him enough pocket money, and besides, all of his friends have stolen money now or then. Mary’s son is using ____ to deal with this anxiety-inducing situation.

A

Rationalization

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44
Q

Jim is repressing his intense urge to have an affair with his secretary. He is in turn accusing his wife of having an affair with her subordinate. Which defence mechanism is Jim employing?

A

Projection

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45
Q

A person refuses to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of the environment

A

Denial

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46
Q

When a person represses an impulse and engages in an exaggerated expression of the opposite behaviour, this form of defence mechanism is known as?

A

Reaction formation

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47
Q

In repression, the ego prevents anxiety-arousing memories, feelings and impulses from entering..?

A

Consciousness

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48
Q

Constructing a false but plausible explanation for an anxiety-arousing event that has already occurred is known as..?

A

Rationalization

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49
Q

When an unacceptable impulse is repressed and it is then attributed to other people, the ego defence mechanism known as____ is at play.

A

Projection

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50
Q

Alex has a very aggressive temperament which he is trying to repress. He joins the football team and becomes a well-loved defender (a socially acceptable form of aggression). Alex has used..?

A

Sublimation

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51
Q

Jack has homosexual feelings that he is repressing. He is also the most vocal opponent of gay rights in his community. What defence mechanism is Jack employing?

A

Reaction formation

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52
Q

Potential deprivations or overindulgences can arise during oral, anal or phallic stages, which can result in _____, a state of arrested psychosexual development

A

Fixation

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53
Q

The ego uses some of its energy to prevent anxiety-arousing memories, feelings, and impulses from entering consciousness.

A

Repression

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54
Q

What is the defence mechanism in which a repressed impulse is released in a socially acceptable form.

A

Sublimination

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55
Q

Regression, a psychological retreat to an earlier psychosexual stage, can occur..?

A

In the face of stressful demands that exceed one’s coping capabilities

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56
Q

According to Freud, in what stage does a child derive pleasure from the process of elimination?

A

Anal

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57
Q

Alex has a very aggressive temperament which he is trying to repress. He joins the football team and becomes a well-loved defender (a socially acceptable form of aggression). Alex has used..?

A

Sublimination

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58
Q

Is the psychological retreat to an earlier psychosexual stage?

A

Regression

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59
Q

The first two Freudian psychosexual stages of development were..?

A

Oral and anal

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60
Q

During which of Freud’s psychosexual stages does a child derive pleasure from his/her sexual organs?

A

Phallic

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61
Q

Freud believed that the ___ stage is a major milestone in the development of gender identity.

A

Phallic

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62
Q

What are the main neo-analytic theorists?

A
  • Karen Horney
  • Carl Jung
  • Erik Erikson
  • Alfred Adler
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63
Q

According to Freud, in what stage does a child derive pleasure from the process of elimination?

A

Anal

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64
Q

Harsh toilet training can lead to compulsions during the ____ stage, according to Freud’s psychosexual stages

A

Anal

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65
Q

Alfred Adler believed that people are motivated by a desire for..?

A

Superiority

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66
Q

In what stage do children normally resolve the Oedipus and Electra complexes and move from a sexual attachment to the opposite-sex parent to identification with the same-sex parent.

A

Phallic stage

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67
Q

Which theory, put forward by Melanie Klein and others, focuses on the mental representations that people form of themselves and other people as a result of early experience with caregivers?

A

Object relations theory

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68
Q

What criticism did neo-analytic theorists have with Freud’s theory?

A
  • Freud laid too much emphasis on the events of childhood

- Freud did not give social and cultural factors much importance

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69
Q

There are three adult attachment styles, what are they?

A
  • Secure
  • Avoidant
  • Anxious-ambivalent
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70
Q

What attachment styles predict depressive symptoms?

A
  • Avoidant

- Anxious-ambivalent

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71
Q

Erikson:

A

Personality development continues throughout the life span, not just when people are children

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72
Q

Adler:

A

Humans are inherently social beings motivated by a strive for superiority

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73
Q

Jung:

A

Humans possess a collective unconscious and their memories are represented by archetypes

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74
Q

Object relations theorists:

A
  • Margaret Mahler
  • Melanie Klein
  • Otto Kernberg
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75
Q

Which attachment style has been implicated in people who repeatedly get involved in abusive romantic relationships?

A

Anxious-ambivalent

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76
Q

Object relation theories focus on the images of early experiences with..?

A

Caregivers

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77
Q

What explains the Whitman case in the light of the social-cognitive perspective?

A
  • Past learning experiences involved in violence

- How he viewed himself and his world

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78
Q

Which attachment style predicts anxiety symptoms

A

Anxious-ambivalent

79
Q

The emphasis on the primacy of immediate experiences is known as..?

A

Phenomenology

80
Q

Which gender with an anxious attachment style become more involved in abusive romantic relationships?

A

Women

81
Q

What theorists can be classified as phenomenological-humanistic theorists?

A
  • Kelly

- Rogers

82
Q

______ focuses our attention on the present instead of the past?

A

Phenomenology

83
Q

Which theory affirms the inherent dignity and goodness of an individual’s spirit?

A

Humanistic

84
Q

Every person has an individual differences in pattern of preferred _____ _____, such as ‘good,’ ‘bad,’ and ‘successful.’

A

Personal constructs

85
Q

The theoretical approach that emphasizes the primacy of immediate experience and has a positive view of humanity is..?

A

The phenomenological-humanistic approach

86
Q

Name the test that was developed by George Kelly to assess individuals’ personal construct systems.

A

Role Construct Repertory test

87
Q

The organised, consistent set of perceptions of and beliefs about oneself is known as the..?

A

Self

88
Q

What is true about the humanistic perspective of humans?

A
  • Humans have inherent dignity
  • The humans spirit is good
  • Humans have a striving towards personal growth
89
Q

Alanna’s mother thinks she is successful because she makes 40,000 Euros a year, and can support herself. But Alanna’s father thinks she is unsuccessful because he believes that is not enough money for anyone to live on. A psychologist would say that this difference opinions is due to their..?

A

Personal constructs

90
Q

Which scientist developed the psychological therapy where clients come to realize that their personal constructs might be hypotheses rather than facts?

A

George Kelly

91
Q

According to Carl Rogers’ theory, the absence of conflict among self-perceptions is called self-____?

A

Consistency

92
Q

What is the Rep test developed by George Kelly used for?

A

To assess an individual’s personal construct systems

93
Q

Michael has strong values and beliefs about the role of a husband in marriage. He is feeling anxiety, however because his behaviour does not match his beliefs. The best conceptualization of this comes from?

A

Rogers and his concept of incongruence

94
Q

According to Carl Rogers, the more rigid and inflexible people’s ______ are, the more maladjusted they will become.

A

Self-concepts

95
Q

Which theory affirms the inherent dignity and goodness of an individual’s spirit?

A

Humanistic

96
Q

According to Carl Rogers’ theory, people have a need to receive acceptance, sympathy and love from others but also have a need to receive acceptance, sympathy and love from ourselves. This term he used to describe this was..?

A

Positive self-regard

97
Q

The absence of conflict among self-perception is called?

A

Self-consistency

98
Q

Carl Rogers used the term ‘problems in ____’ to refer to the situation where people choose to deny or distort their experiences to remove incongruences.

A

Living

99
Q

According to Carl Rogers, the degree of congruence between sel-concept and experience helps define one’s level of..?

A

Adjustment

100
Q

Xu’s parents seem to be equally happy of her achievement, whether she receives the first prize or no prize at all. Xu’s parents are exhibiting..?

A

Unconditional love

101
Q

Carl Rogers viewed ‘positive ____’ as essential for healthy development.

A

Regard

102
Q

According to Carl Rogers’ theory, a fully functioning person has the following qualities:

A
  • They are true to themselves

- They are spontaneous and creative

103
Q

Bruno’s parents only approve of him when he receives the first prize in anything that he is participating in. This is..?

A

Conditional love

104
Q

Brett feels comfortable in the decision that his career is more important to him than getting married and having children, although his mother does not approve of his choices. According to Rogers, Brett is..?

A

A fully functioning person

105
Q

Rogers suggested that people have a need to regard themselves positively, and research confirms the existence of self-____, a strong and persuasive tendency to gain and preserve a positive self-image

A

Enhancement

106
Q

Carl Rogers viewed ‘positive _____’ as essential for healthy development.

A

Regard

107
Q

The fact that 80% of high school students rate themselves in the top 10% in their ability to get along with others indicates a..?

A

Self-enhancement effect

108
Q

The goal of _____ theorists’ approach to personality is to describe the basic classes of behaviour that define peronality.

A

Personality

109
Q

The humanistic perspective on the value of self-reports is..?

A

That they are important information

110
Q

The two major approaches to discover and define personality traits are the..?

A

Lexical approach and the factor analytic approach

111
Q

According to the phenomenological-humanistic perspectives, what would be the most central concept that could explain the behaviour of Charles Whitman?

A

Self-concept

112
Q

Research shows that people who are socially reserved are likely to make fewer friends, go to fewer parties, and talk less than people who are not socially reserved. These clusters of behaviour or personality traits can be studied by..?

A

Factor analytic approach

113
Q

What would a personality trait psychologist most likely do?

A
  • Predict a person’s personality
  • Devise ways of measuring individual differences in personality
  • Describe the basic classes of behaviour that defines personality
114
Q

What matters most in ____ approaches is how people view themselves and the world.

A

Phenomenological-humanistic

115
Q

What method of studying personality traits have been used to study introversion-extraversion traits?

A

Factor analytic method

116
Q

The two major approaches to discover and define personality traits are..?

A
  • Lexical approach

- Factor analytic approach

117
Q

Who developed the 16 personality factor questionnaire?

A

Raymond Cattell

118
Q

Hans J. Eysenck believed that normal personality could be understood in terms of ____ basic dimensions.

A

Two

119
Q

A person who is careful, disciplined and organised is likely to be high in which of the big five traits?

A

Conscitiousness

120
Q

Raymon Cattell subjected his data from his 1965 research to _____ approach, and identified 16 basic behaviour clusters.

A

Factor analytic

121
Q

A person who is insecure and anxious is likely high in which of the big 5 traits?

A

Neuroticism

122
Q

What are the dimensions of Eysenck’s model of personality?

A

Stability-instability and introversion-extraversion

123
Q

According to the Five Factor Model, someone who is curious, imaginative, and unconventional scores high in..?

A

Openness versus closedness to experience

124
Q

Cahli is trusting, warm, modest, tender-minded and sympathetic. These qualities best fit which of the big five?

A

Agreeableness versus antagonism

125
Q

Trait theorists not only try to describe the basic structure of personality, but also attempt to ____ real-life behaviour on the basis of personality traits.

A

Predict

126
Q

What is at the opposite end of the spectrum that has Conscientiousness on one end of the spectrum?

A

Lack of direction

127
Q

What is at the opposite end of the spectrum that has Neuroticism on one end of the spectrum?

A

Emotional stability

128
Q

According to McCrae and Costa if a person scores high in the positive emotions facet of extraversion, the person is likely to have higher..?

A

Life satisfaction

129
Q

Research findings in regard to personality traits and their stability over time have found..?

A

Evidence for both stability and change

130
Q

A person who is careful, disciplined and organized is likely to be high on which of the big five traits?

A

Conscientiousness

131
Q

What were the criticism of the trait approach?

A
  • It does not provide insight into psychological processes underlying traits
  • It does not pay enough attention to how traits work in combination
  • It is descriptive rather than explanatory
132
Q

What could the trait approach have offered in the case of Charles Whitman?

A

Had he taken a battery of personality test, the result may have alerted professionals about his potential for violent behaviour

133
Q

Biological explanations for personality would most likely include:

A
  • Genetics
  • Evolutionary
  • Neuroscience
134
Q

The big five factors of personality are measured using the..?

A

NEO personality inventory

135
Q

Research shows that out of the big five personality traits, _____ and _____ tend to increase from the late teens to the early 30s

A

Agreeableness and conscientiousness

136
Q

Twin studies help psychologists understand ____ influences on personality.

A

Genetic

137
Q

One major criticism of the Five Factor Model trait approach is..?

A

Its lack of explanatory power

138
Q

Genetics and neuroscience explanations for personality fall into the _____ category of personality research.

A

Biological

139
Q

One logical place to look for biological underpinnings of personality is in..?

A

Individual differences in brain functioning

140
Q

Because personality has genetic contributions, personalities of _____ twins would be more similar than those of ______ twins.

A

Identical, fraternal

141
Q

A person who is chronically over-aroused:

A

Introverted

142
Q

A person who is chronically under-aroused:

A

Extraverted

143
Q

During human development, temperament seems to appear in..?

A

Infancy

144
Q

According to Kagan’s research, inhabited infants react to unfamiliar situations with..?

A

Distress

145
Q

What is related to the nervous system functioning as an explanation for personality?

A
  • Temperament
  • Genetics
  • Eysenck’s work
146
Q

Eysenck’s theory of introversion-extraversion rests on the idea of..?

A

Arousal patterns in the brain

147
Q

Individual ______ in emotional and behavioural styles is referred to as temperament.

A

Differences

148
Q

Research by Borkenau indicated that genetic factors..?

A

Interact with developmental and situational factors

149
Q

According to Kagan’s research, uninhibited infants seem to ____ novelty.

A

Enjoy

150
Q

According to the biological perspective, which two causes could explain the behaviour of Charles Whitman?

A
  • A fast-growing brain tumour

- A genetic predisposition to violence

151
Q

B.F. Skinner was more interested in discovering _____ laws of learning than in identifying individual differences in behaviour.

A

Universal

152
Q

What was a finding of the locus of control research?

A

Internals are more resistant to social influences

153
Q

What represents Julian Rotter’s research?

A
  • Expectancy effects
  • Locus of control
  • Reinforcement value
154
Q

J. Rotter defined the _____ as an expectancy concerning the degree of personal control we have in our lives.

A

Internal-external locus of control

155
Q

What is the difference between the behavioural approach to studying personality and the social-cognitive approach to studying personality?

A

Behavioural approach focuses on universal laws: social-cognitive approach focuses on the individual

156
Q

What is a finding of the locus of control research?

A

African Americans who actively participated in the civil rights movement were more internal on Rotter’s I-E scale

157
Q

Who laid the foundation for today’s social-cognitive approaches?

A

Rotter

158
Q

What is the purpose of the internal-external scale?

A

To measure the individual differences in locus control

159
Q

Bandura is best described as an?

A

Social cognitivist

160
Q

A person’s belief in their own ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve desired outcomes is known as..?

A

Self-efficacy

161
Q

In his mind, Barry is going through his previous successes and failures at asking girls out on a date to decide whether he should ask Alena out on a date. Which self-efficacy factor is Barry focusing on?

A

Performance experiences

162
Q

Which of the following is an important determinant of self-efficacy?

A

Observational learning

163
Q

The instrument developed by J. Rotter to measure the individual differences in locus of control is called the..?

A

Internal-external scale

164
Q

Albert Bandura is an influential social-cognitivist with the following research areas:

A
  • Self-efficacy

- Behavioural self-control

165
Q

Julie was uncertain of her ability to complete an assignment successfully. Her lecturer encouraged he and assured her that she was an excellent student whom he expected would perform very well. This input led Julie feeling more confident in approaching the work. This is an example of ______ leading to increased self-efficacy.

A

Verbal persuasion

166
Q

According to Albert Bandura, ______ - ______ is people’s beliefs concerning their ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve desired outcomes.

A

Self-efficacy

167
Q

If we feel we have mastered the skills necessary to perform a task, we are likely to feel increased self-efficacy in relation to that task. This is referred to as ______.

A

Performance experiences

168
Q

Efficacy beliefs are a strong predictor of future..?

A

Accomplishments

169
Q

If we see a person like us accomplish a particular goal, we are likely to feel we can do the same if we perform the same behaviour. This is referred to as..?

A

Observational leraning

170
Q

What are personality variables in the CAPS system?

A
  • Emotions
  • Expectancies and beliefs
  • Competencies and self regulatory processes
  • Encodings and personal constructs
  • Goals and values
171
Q

A person’s belief is their own ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve desired outcomes is known as..?

A

Self-efficacy

172
Q

We respond to the world as perceived. Which of the CAPS variables would this best describe?

A

Encoding strategies

173
Q

Henry Ford’s statement ‘Whether you believe you can do something or you believe you can’t, you’re probably right’ is an example of..?

A

A self-fulfilling prophecy

174
Q

Motivation plays a central role in attempts to understand behaviour and it is represented in the CAPS system by..?

A

Goals and variables

175
Q

Which of the following is an important determinant of self-efficacy?

A

Observational learning

176
Q

According to Rotter, what are the if-then links between alternative behaviours and possible outcomes known as?

A

Behaviour outcome expectancies

177
Q

Encoding strategies, expectancies and beliefs, goals and values, affects and competencies are the personality variables in the ______ personality system.

A

Cognitive-affective

178
Q

Research shows that aggressive youth have a tendency to perceive people as being disrespectful towards them. This is likely due to our..?

A

Encoding and personal constructs

179
Q

Motivation relates directly to the person’s..?

A

Goals and values

180
Q

According to theories of competencies and self-regulatory processes, self-reinforcement processes are most applied to people who are more..?

A

Autonomous

181
Q

Which of the following are the strengths of the social-cognitive theories?

A
  • Its ability to translate insights from other perspectives into cognitive-behavioural terms
  • A strong scientific base
182
Q

According to the social-cognitive perspective, the cause of Charles Whitman’s behaviour lie in his..?

A

Past learning experiences that predisposed him to violence

183
Q

______ is a product of interacting biological and environmental influences

A

Personality

184
Q

One thing that adds to the complexity of making cultural comparisons of personality are the findings of Triandis and Suh that _____ of people within a given cultural strongly embrace the collectivistic or individualistic goals of their culture.

A

40%

185
Q

One of the cultural differences between hunter-gatherer cultures of the past and the current information-age culture is its..?

A

Complexity

186
Q

In general, females self-report higher ____ than males.

A

Neuroticism

187
Q

Name the main way through which cultures can influence personality?

A

Complexity

188
Q

Cultures differ among dimensions of complexity and..?

A

Interdependence

189
Q

In general, males self-report lower _____ than females.

A

Agreeableness and neuroticism

190
Q

Which of the following influence gender differences in personality?

A

Environment and biology

191
Q

In what ways do psychologists assess personality?

A
  • By using objective tests
  • By using projective tests
  • Through interview
192
Q

What characteristics must personality measures have in order to be scientifically and practically useful?

A
  • Validity

- Reliability

193
Q

If a test is able to yield statistically similar scores when administered to the same individual by different people, then the test is said to have..?

A

Interjudge reliability

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