6.1 medical ethics Flashcards
1
Q
What is meant by personood?
A
- central to many medical ethical debates because, in our society, it’s generally considered to be morally wrong to kill a person BUT not morally wrong to kill a non-person
- so what makes up a person?
2
Q
What are some examples of characteristics that constitute a person?
A
- personality, self-awareness, the ability to use language, a network of beliefs, a consciousness of its own experiences, rationality, etc
3
Q
What is meant by the sanctity of life?
A
- the idea that every life has intrinsic and absolute value
- those who uphold the sanctity of life. often do so for religious reasons e.g. life if God-given and therefore is sacred
4
Q
How can Kant be seen to argue for the sanctity of life?
A
- the practical imperative - people should never be treated as a means but always as an end
- Kant therefore would oppose any law that allows the shortening of life
5
Q
How can NML be seen to argue for the sanctity of life?
A
- innocent human life should be preserved
6
Q
What is meant by the quality of life?
A
- the idea that the value of a life depends on how satisfying it is to the person living it
- the overall wellbeing of a person is a significant factor in making medical decisions
7
Q
How can utilitarianism be seen to argue for the quality of life?
A
- quality of life is proportional to the amount of pleasure over pain as measured by the hedonic calculus
8
Q
What are the three arguments for where the value of life comes from?
A
- autonomy
- rights
- consciousness
9
Q
How can it be argued that the value of life comes from our autonomy?
A
- the value of life comes from our ability to make personal choices
10
Q
What are the limitations of autonomy being the source of the value of life?
A
- personal autonomy is over-valued at the expense of obligations to the community
- may permit anti-social behaviour from those who hold extreme views
11
Q
How can it be argued that rights are the source of the value of life?
A
- Thomas Hobbes = we may take life if it is in the best of interests of society
12
Q
What are the limitations of rights being the source of the value of life?
A
- John Locke = rights are universal entitlements that protect us from governments
13
Q
How can it be argued that consciousness is the source of the value of life?
A
- Jonathan Glover = life is always valuable so long as it is a conscious life; the body has instrumental value in the way that it allows consciousness to have experience
14
Q
What is the UK law’s stance on embryonic research?
A
- experimentation and testing on embryos can only take place up to 14 days after fertilisation
15
Q
What are religious views on research on embryos?
A
- NML = wholly rejects embryonic stem cell research because it involves procreation outside of marriage + human beings ought to be created in the womb
- Catholic = the donation of organs and tissue( including the placenta, umbilical cord or cord blood) is encouraged
16
Q
What are some arguments on when life begins?
A
- dualism = religious believers maintain the soul is implanted by God and for many ensoulment takes place from conception
- OR the relational aspect of personhood means that a human being becomes a person when accepted as such by others
17
Q
What is the definition of abortion?
A
- the termination of a pregnancy
18
Q
What is the UK law’s position on abortion?
A
- 2 doctors must give their consent
- it can take place up to 24 weeks
- if either the mental/physical health of the mother and/or existing children is at risk or the child will be at risk if born
19
Q
What is the religious viewpoint on abortion?
A
- overall are against abortion as:
- only God has the right to decide when a person should die
- each person has an eternal soul and this should be protected
- life is God-given
20
Q
What are the views of the pro-choice argument?
A
- a woman should be free to decide whether or not to have an abortion
- there are 2 central issues:
1. whether the foetus is a person/potential person
2. whether the foetus has rights and if so, how to balance these against the rights of the mother
21
Q
What does Judith Jarvis Thomson add to the abortion debate?
A
- uses a metaphor to convey ideas about the right of the woman over her body; comparing abortion to awaking to find yourself with a violinist whose vitals have been tied to yours
- you are entitled to unplug yourself from the violinist because the right to life doesn’t entail the right to use another person’s body
22
Q
What is meant by euthanasia?
A
- allowing doctors to end the lives of their patients
23
Q
What is the UK laws’s position on euthanasia?
A
- it’s illegal in the UK for a doctor actively to kill their patient, but they may take the decision to facilitate a person’s death by some other means e.g. withdrawing life-preserving treatment
24
Q
What is meant by assisted dying?
A
- the dying person controls their own death with the assistance of a third party
- also illegal in the UK
25
What is meant by voluntary euthanasia?
- carried out at the request of the person dying
26
What is a risk with voluntary euthanasia?
- this may lead to a **slippery slope** of people feeling pressurised into agreeing to euthanasia
27
What is meant by non-voluntary euthanasia?
- a person chooses to end another person’s life for them because they are unable to decide for themselves
28
What does Jonathon Glover argue about euthanasia?
- ‘voluntary euthanasia is justified in those cases where we know the person would commit suicide if he could’
29
What did **Michael Wilcockson** write?
- ‘Euthanasia and Doctors Ethics’
30
What is the aim of ‘Euthanasia and Doctor’s Ethics’?
- considers euthanasia from a medical ethics perspective and explains why it’s still illegal in the UK
31
How does Wilcockson refer to Singer?
- he refers to Singer’s argument that modern liberal societies focus more on QoL than SoL
- doctors face increasingly difficult decisions e.g Toni Nicklinson and Charlie Gard
32
What is the position of the British Medical Association(BMA)?
- they are against active euthanasia BUT accept passive euthanasia
33
What are the three principles used by doctors arising from the Hippocratic Oath that Wilcockson identifies?
1. acts and omissions
2. doctrine of double effect
3. ordinary and extraordinary means
34
What is meant by acts and omissions?
- active euthanasia = an act
- passive euthanasia = an omission
- failure to act doesn’t absolve you from moral responsibility
35
What is meant by the doctrine of double effect?
- administering potentially lethal doses of painkillers to relieve suffering is moral
- BUT Wilcockson observes that this could easily be abused
36
What is meant by ordinary and extraordinary means?
- in most circumstances we have a duty to accept healthcare BUT we don’t have to go to extremes and keep ourselves going when it’s simply prolonging the dying process
37
What does Wilcockson suggest the best way to go about ending life?
- it may be better to refer to **proportionate** and **disproportionate** means
- this would allow doctors to decide on a case-by-case basis what is in the best interest of the patient
38
What is the relationship between law and morality in a liberal society?
- law is a public matter, morality is private
- law thus should be divorced from morality
39
How does Wilcockson challenge the liberal stance on law and morality?
- although law is detached from morality, it takes into account a general moral feeling and legislation is decided on the basis of how society morally feels
- the moral feeling among doctors is that if euthanasia is legalised it can lead to a slippery slope
40
What are the two main arguments against legalising euthanasia, identified by Wilcockson?
1. undermining of autonomy
2. slippery slope/ thin end of the wedge
41
What is meant by **undermining personal autonomy**?
- the BMA has voiced concerns that legalising euthanasia in order to respect individual autonomy actually undermines it, especially if the individual is vulnerable to
- the trust between doctor and patient would be broken and society’s attitudes towards disability, age and illness would change
42
What is meant by **the wedge argument**?
- refers to the concern that legalised euthanasia would lead to other forms of killing becoming accepted and legal
