*5A XC Planning - Navigation Flashcards
- What are three common ways to navigate?
To navigate successfully, pilots must know their approximate position at all times or be able to determine it whenever they wish. Position may be determined by:
a. Pilotage (by reference to visible landmarks);
b. Dead reckoning (by computing direction and distance from a known position); or
c. Radio navigation (by use of radio aids).
- What type of aeronautical charts are available for use in VFR navigation?
(AIM 9-1-4)
a. Sectional Charts—designed for visual navigation of slow to medium speed aircraft. One inch equals 6.86 nautical miles. They are revised semiannually, except most Alaskan charts which are revised annually.
b. VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC)—TACs depict the Class B airspace. While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more detail because the scale is larger. One inch equals 3.43 nautical miles. Charts are revised semiannually, except in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands where they are revised annually.
c. World Aeronautical Charts (WAC)—WACs cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed aircraft operating at high altitudes. Because of a smaller scale, WACs do not show as much detail as sectionals or TACs, and therefore are not recommended for pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. One inch equals 13.7 nautical miles. WACs are revised annually except for a few in Alaska and the Caribbean, which are revised biennially.
d. VFR Flyway Planning Charts—This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the associated TAC. They depict flight paths “and altitudes recommended for use to bypass high traffic areas.
3. Be capable of locating the following items on a sectional chart: Abandoned airports Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) Airport elevation Airports with a rotating beacon Airports with lighting facilities Airports with services Alert Area Approach Control frequencies ATIS Class B airspace Class C airspace Class D airspace Class D airspace ceiling Class E airspace (controlled airspace 700 foot floor) Class E airspace (controlled airspace 1,200 foot floor) Class E surface area Class E transition area Class G airspace CTAF Flight Service Station frequencies Glider operating area Hard surfaced runway airports HIWAS IFR route Isogonic lines Maximum elevation figures Military Airports Military Operations Area Military Training Routes Mode C veil
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- What is an “isogonic line”?
FAA-H-8083-25
Shown on most aeronautical charts as broken magenta lines, isogonic lines connect points of equal magnetic variation. They show the amount and direction of magnetic variation, which from time to time may vary.
- What is “magnetic variation”?
FAA-H-8083-25
Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north. It is expressed as east variation or west variation depending upon whether magnetic north (MN) is to the east or west of true north (TN), respectively.
- How do you convert a true direction to a magnetic direction?
(FAA-H-8083-25)
To convert true course or heading to magnetic course or heading, note the variation shown by the nearest isogonic line. If variation is west, add; if east, subtract.
Remember: East is Least (Subtract)
West is Best (Add)
- What are lines of latitude and longitude?
FAA-H-8083-25
Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east and west), parallels of latitude, enable us to measure distance in degrees latitude north or south of the equator. Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the equator. The “Prime Meridian,” which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero line from which measurements are made in degrees east and west to 180°. The 48 conterminous states of the United States lie between 25 degrees and 49 degrees north latitude and between 67 degrees and 125 degrees west longitude.
- What is “magnetic deviation”?
FAA-H-8083-25
Because of magnetic influences within the airplane itself (electrical circuits, radios, lights, tools, engine, magnetized metal parts, etc.) the compass needle is frequently deflected from its normal reading. This deflection is called deviation. Deviation is different for each airplane, and also varies for different headings of the same airplane. The deviation value may be found on a deviation card located in the airplane.
- Name several types of radio aids to air navigation.
AIM 1-1-2 through 1-1-7, and 1-1-19
a. NDB (Nondirectional Radio Beacon)
b. VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range)
c. VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation)
d. DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
e. RNAV (Area Navigation) includes INS, LORAN, VOR/DME-referenced, and GPS)
- What is a “VOR” or “VORTAC”?
FAA-H-8083-25
VORs are VHF radio stations that project radials in all directions (360°) from the station, like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Each of these radials is denoted by its outbound magnetic direction. Almost all VOR stations will also be VORTACs. A VORTAC (VOR-Tactical Air Navigation), provides the standard bearing information of a VOR plus distance information to pilots of airplanes which have distance measuring equipment (DME).
- Within what frequency range do VORs operate?
FAA-H-8083-25
Transmitting frequencies of omnirange stations are in the VHF (very high frequency) band between 108 and 117.95 MHz, which are immediately below aviation communication frequencies.
- What is a VOR “radial”?
FAA-H-8083-25
A “radial” is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending from an omnidirectional range (VOR). A VOR projects 360 radials from the station. These radials are always identified by their direction “from” the station. Regardless of heading, an aircraft on the 360° radial will always be located north of the station.
- How are VOR NAVAIDs classified?
AIM 1-1-8
Terminal, Low, and High
14. What reception distances can be expected from the various class VORs? (FAA-H-8083-25)
Class - Distance/Altitudes -Miles T - 12,000' and below - 25 L - Below 18,000' - 40 H - Below 18,000' - 40 H - 14,500 – 17,999' - 100 (conterminous 48 states only) H - 18,000 – FL450 - 130 H - Above FL450 - 100
- What limitations, if any, apply to VOR reception distances?
(AIM 1-1-3)
VORs are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment.
- What are the different methods for checking the accuracy of VOR receiver equipment?
(14 CFR 91.171)
a. VOT check—plus or minus 4°
b. Ground checkpoint—plus or minus 4°
c. Airborne checkpoint—plus or minus 6°
d. Dual VOR check—4° between each other
e. Selected radial over a known ground point—plus or minus 6°
- What is an “NDB”?
AIM 1-1-2
A nondirectional beacon; a low- to medium-frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and “home” or “track” to the station.
- Within what frequency range do NDBs operate?
AIM 1-1-2
These facilities normally operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 kHz (immediately below AM broadcast bands) and transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 Hz modulation. All radio beacons, except compass locators, transmit a continuous three-letter identification code.
- What is “ADF”?
FAA-H-8083-25
Automatic Direction Finder—Many general aviation-type airplanes are equipped with automatic direction finder (ADF) radio receiving equipment which operate in the low to medium frequency bands. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known as a Non-Directional Beacon (NDB). The most common use of ADF is that of “homing” by flying the needle to the station.
- What are some of the advantages/disadvantages when using ADF for navigation?
(FAA-H-8083-25)
Advantages: Low cost of equipment and usually very low maintenance; Low or medium frequencies are not affected by line-of-sight; The signals follow the curvature of the earth; therefore, if the aircraft is within range of the station, the signals can be received regardless of altitude.
Disadvantages: Low frequency signals are very susceptible to electrical disturbances, such as lightning, precipitation static, etc.; These disturbances create excessive static, needle deviations, and signal fades; Particularly at night, there may be interference from distant stations.
21. What are the normal usable service ranges for the various class NDBs? (FAA-H-8083-25)
Compass locator - under 25 watts - 15 NM MH - under 50 watts - 25 NM H - 50 to 1999 watts - 50 NM* HH - 2000 or more watts - 75 NM *Service range of individual facilities may be less than 50 miles
- What is “DME”?
AIM 1-1-7
Distance Measuring Equipment (airborne and ground)—used to measure, in nautical miles, the slant range distance of an aircraft from the DME navigational aid. Aircraft equipped with DME are provided with distance and ground speed information when receiving a VORTAC or TACAN facility. DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 960 MHz and 1215 MHz.
- Give a brief explanation of GPS.
AIM 1-1-19
Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite-based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal used by receivers to determine a precise position anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines a pseudo-range measurement that is then used to determine the user’s location.
- What are the three functional elements of GPS? (FAA-H-8083-15)
Space element—consists of 30 satellites.
Control element—consists of a network of ground-based GPS monitoring and control stations that ensure the accuracy of satellite positions and their clocks.
User element—consists of antennas and receiver-processors onboard aircraft that provide positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user.
- What are the different types of GPS receivers available for use?
(AIM 1-1-19)
Types of receivers used for GPS navigation under VFR are varied, from a full IFR installation used to support a VFR flight, to a VFR-only installation (in either a VFR or IFR capable aircraft), to a hand-held receiver. The limitations of each type of receiver installation or use must be understood by the pilot to avoid misusing navigation information.
- What is the purpose of RAIM?
FAA-H-8083-6
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) is a self-monitoring function performed by a GPS receiver to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being received from the satellites at all times. The GPS will alert the pilot whenever the integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do not meet the criteria for safe navigational use.
- Where can a pilot obtain RAIM availability information?
AIM 1-1-19
GPS RAIM availability information can be obtained from an AFSS during preflight briefings. FSS briefers will provide RAIM information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA, unless a specific time frame is requested by the pilot.
- Before conducting a flight using GPS equipment for navigation, what basic preflight checks should be made?
(FAA-H-8261-1)
a. Verify that GPS equipment is properly installed and certified for the planned operation.
b. Verify that the database is current and has not expired.
c. Review GPS NOTAM/RAIM information related to the planned route of flight.
“29. How can a pilot determine what type of operation a GPS receiver is approved for? (FAA-H-8083-6)
The pilot should reference the POH/AFM and supplements to determine the limitations and operating procedures for the particular GPS equipment installed. Most systems require that the avionics operations manual/handbook be on board as a limitation of use.”
Excerpt From: Michael D. Hayes. “Private Oral Exam Guide.” Aviation Supplies and Academics, Inc., 2012-05-25. iBooks.
This material may be protected by copyright.
Check out this book on the iBooks Store: https://itun.es/us/VQfBR.l
“29. How can a pilot determine what type of operation a GPS receiver is approved for? (FAA-H-8083-6)
The pilot should reference the POH/AFM and supplements to determine the limitations and operating procedures for the particular GPS equipment installed. Most systems require that the avionics operations manual/handbook be on board as a limitation of use.”
Excerpt From: Michael D. Hayes. “Private Oral Exam Guide.” Aviation Supplies and Academics, Inc., 2012-05-25. iBooks.
This material may be protected by copyright.
Check out this book on the iBooks Store: https://itun.es/us/VQfBR.l
- During a preflight briefing, will the FSS briefer automatically provide a pilot with GPS NOTAMS? (FAA-H-8083-6)
No. You must specifically request GPS/WAAS NOTAMs.
- How many satellites does a GPS receiver require to compute its position?
(FAA-H-8083-15)
3 satellites—yields a latitude and longitude position only (2D)
4 satellites—yields latitude, longitude, and altitude position (3D)
5 satellites—3D and RAIM
6 satellites—3D and RAIM (isolates corrupt signal and removes from navigation solution)
- What is WAAS?
FAA-H-8083-6
The wide area augmentation system (WAAS) is a ground and satellite integrated navigational error correction system that provides accuracy enhancements to signals received from the global positioning system. WAAS provides extremely accurate lateral and vertical navigation signals to aircraft equipped with GPS/WAAS-enabled certified (TSO C-146) equipment.
- What limitations should you be aware of when using a panel-mount VFR GPS or a hand-held VFR GPS system for navigation?
(AIM 1-1-19)
a. RAIM capability—Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand-held units have no RAIM alerting capability. Loss of the required number of satellites in view, or the detection of a position error, cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers.
b. Database currency—In many receivers, an updatable database is used for navigation fixes, airports, and instrument procedures. These databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operation, but no such requirement exists for VFR use.
c. Antenna location—In many VFR installations of GPS receivers, antenna location is more a matter of convenience than performance. Handheld GPS receiver antenna location is limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is rarely optimized to provide a clear view of available satellites. Loss of signal, coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could present erroneous position and navigation information with no warning to the pilot.
- Define the term “VFR waypoint.”
FAA-H-8083-25
VFR waypoints provide pilots with a supplementary tool to assist with position awareness while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with area navigation receivers (such as GPS). They provide navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B and Class C airspace, and around special use airspace. VFR waypoint names consist of a five-letter identifier beginning with “VP” and are retrievable from navigation databases; they should be used only when operating under VFR conditions.
