4.2 - Colonial Policy and Administration Flashcards
What was the ultimate goal of British colonial policy after WWII?
To guide the Colonial Territories to responsible self-government within the Commonwealth.
What were the British government’s ambitions for its relationship with the old Dominions?
To maintain ties based on common interest and ancestral and cultural ties.
What was the reality of the relationship with the old Dominions?
The Dominions asserted their own identities and interests.
What was the ANZUS military pact?
A pact formed between Australia, New Zealand, and the USA in 1951.
What did Attlee envision for the new Commonwealth?
An association of free, independent states transcending race, colour, and creed.
What was one way the new Commonwealth was seen to benefit Britain?
It would help protect Britain’s global economic interests and influence.
What was the nature of the new Commonwealth according to Attlee?
A body of ‘free and equal’ states with no legal obligations but united by history.
What challenges did Britain face in building the new Commonwealth?
Lack of enthusiasm from India, Pakistan, and Ceylon, and differing interests among members.
What was the compromise made to maintain the Commonwealth?
Republican India accepted the British monarch as ‘Head of the Commonwealth’.
How did the Sterling Area tie Britain to its former colonies?
It reinforced Commonwealth solidarity in trade and finance despite Britain’s economic weakness.
What was the economic significance of the pound sterling in the Sterling Area?
It was used as the basis of currency by many members, maintaining the value of the pound.
What were Britain’s hopes for its African colonies?
To provide mineral wealth and a source of troops for the armed forces.
What was the Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1945?
An act allocating £120m over 10 years to assist the colonies’ development.
What does ‘the second colonial occupation’ refer to?
The government’s aggressive approach to develop colonial economies, also known as ‘economic colonialism’.
What was the Tanganyika Ground Nut Scheme?
A 1948 initiative aimed at reducing Britain’s deficit of oils and fats.
What were the consequences of the Tanganyika Ground Nut Scheme?
It cost £36m, failed to provide oil, and upset local vested interests.
What did the Labour government claim about its colonial rule?
That it had abolished the old type of capitalist imperialism.
What was the reality of the Labour government’s impact on the colonies?
It exploited the colonies economically, restricting investment and controlling trade.
Fill in the blank: Between 1945-51, the colonies were forced to lend Britain more money than Britain actually _______.
invested in the colonies.
True or False: The Labour government was largely successful in fulfilling its claimed aims regarding colonial development.
False.
What was the Labour government’s awareness regarding WWII’s impact on its colonies?
Need to widen representative government and develop timetables for self-rule
This awareness led to reforms aimed at preparing colonies for independence.
What idea did the Labour government try to convey in West Africa?
Collaboration with nationalists to prepare colonies for independence
This approach was part of their strategy for decolonization.
What system was introduced in the Gold Coast after the 1948 Accra riots?
Universal suffrage to elect an assembly
Despite this, British authorities maintained control over finance, police, and civil service.
What was Nigeria’s response to developments in the Gold Coast?
Successfully pressed for more political participation
This indicated a growing demand for political rights in the region.
Why were the Gold Coast and Nigeria considered exceptions in terms of decolonization?
- Well-populated countries
- Educated elites capable of government
- Few white settlers complicating decolonization
The Gold Coast was particularly close to complete independence by the time Labour left office.
What was a significant result of the political reforms introduced by Attlee’s government?
Created conditions for colonial politicians to organize and drive out British rule
The momentum for African independence was already gathering.
What was the organization of British rule in Malaya in 1945?
- 9 states ruled by sultans under British protection
- 2 British settlements
- Singapore
Britain allied itself with the Malayan elite in this structure.
Why was Malaya economically important to the British government?
- Produced 1/3 of the world’s tin
- Major rubber producer
- Important source of dollars
Its rubber exports alone earned more hard currency than all of Britain’s domestic exports to the USA in the 1940s.
What political reform did the Labour government propose for Malaya?
Grouped the states and settlements into the Federation of Malaya in 1948
This was aimed at creating a stronger political unit.
What was the Malayan Emergency?
- Malayan communists stirred up strikes and violence
- State of emergency declared
- Thousands of British troops sent to Malaya
- Over 1000 killed by 1951
- Conflict lasted until late 1950s
The emergency was exacerbated by ethnic problems.
How did the British counter the Communist insurgents during the Malayan Emergency?
- Majority of the population remained pro-British
- Resettled Chinese in guarded villages
- Won battles for Malayan ‘hearts and minds’
Despite these efforts, policies worsened ethnic tensions.
What was Britain’s position in the Middle East by the late 1940s?
- Dominance presence despite loss of Palestine
- Right to keep troops in Suez Canal zone
- Shared responsibility for Sudan with Egypt
- Controlled Aden and most sheikhdoms in Arabian Peninsula
- Military bases in Iraq and ties with Jordan
This allowed Britain to maintain strategic interests in the region.
Why was the Middle East crucial to Britain according to Labour Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin?
- Importance of oil
- Strategic significance of the Suez Canal
- Desire to keep Russian influence out
- Central to imperial defense
Bevin sought to maintain British hegemony through cooperation with Arab states.
Where did the Labour government accept that its colonial rule was over?
- India/Pakistan in 1947
- Burma in 1948
- Palestine in 1948
These regions had strong nationalist movements and significant violence.
What factors contributed to the Labour government’s decision to let go of its colonies?
- Strength of nationalist movements
- Violence in these regions
- Ethnic tensions, especially in Palestine
- Lack of resources to police these areas post-war
The economic unviability of maintaining control also played a role.
True or False: Burma and Palestine joined the Commonwealth after leaving the British Empire.
False
Their departure marked a significant shift in Britain’s colonial influence.
What were Churchill’s aims for the British Empire?
To preserve the Commonwealth and the Empire, believing in British superiority and its essential presence among top world powers.
What was the intention of Churchill’s government regarding self-government?
To continue the process towards ‘self-government within the Commonwealth’.
What economic challenges did Churchill’s government face regarding imperial policy?
The recovering British economy faced fierce competition from Germany, France, and Japan, and the treasury warned of too many foreign responsibilities.
What was Churchill’s stance on jettisoning overseas commitments?
Both Churchill and Eden opposed it, believing it would damage Britain’s international status and economy.
What external factors worked in favor of Churchill’s imperial policy?
The USA was focused on keeping European allies against communism rather than promoting decolonization, and the USSR was not deeply involved outside Europe.
What impact did the devaluation of the pound in 1949 have on Britain’s economy?
It helped British exports as the economy improved by 1951.
What was the British approach to independence in West Africa by 1955?
It was accepted that the Gold Coast and Nigeria should become independent.
What challenges did East Africa present for British rule?
Few educated Africans, serious tribal divisions, and large numbers of Asian migrants, along with resistance from white settlers in Kenya.
What was the Mau Mau Emergency?
A rebellion from 1952-56 led by the Kikuyu tribe against European land ownership and racial discrimination, resulting in violence and British military intervention.
What were the consequences of the Mau Mau Emergency?
Thousands of Kikuyu were resettled, 20,000 Mau Mau fighters killed, and 1,090 Africans hanged, with widespread torture and violence by British security forces.
What was the Central African Federation?
Established in 1953, it granted white minority self-rule while the British government maintained a veto over legislation affecting black people.
How did Churchill’s government view the Suez Canal Zone?
Churchill regarded the Suez base as vital, maintaining 40,000 troops there despite unpopularity.
What led to the Egyptian army’s seizure of power in 1952?
Riots in Cairo and the destruction of British business premises.
What agreement was reached between Britain and Egypt regarding the Sudan in 1953?
It granted the Sudan three years of virtual home-rule, after which they could choose between independence or union with Egypt.
What was the outcome of the British military leaders’ assessment of the Suez base by 1953?
They agreed it was no longer essential, leading to an agreement in July 1954 for troop withdrawal within 20 months.
What was Britain’s hope for Cyprus?
To establish it as a suitable alternative base to sustain dominance in the Middle East.
What was the primary demand of Greek Cypriots by 1954?
A union with Greece, opposed by the Turkish minority.
What actions did Britain take in response to the EOKA campaign in Cyprus?
Declared a state of emergency on 1 April 1955 and sent 25,000 troops to maintain order.
What was the outcome of the conflict with EOKA by 1957?
British troops gained the upper hand, leading to a truce announced by Grivas.
What was Britain’s commitment to the Middle East after WW2?
Britain remained fearful of the Soviet Union’s ambitions, kept 10,000 troops in the Suez Canal Zone, controlled Aden and Cyprus, financed Jordan’s army, and negotiated with the Arab League.
Despite these efforts, the Arab League would not support Britain due to its military presence in Egypt.
What significant event occurred in Egypt in 1952?
Colonel Nasser came to power after overthrowing King Farouk in a military coup.
Farouk had independently renounced the Anglo-Egyptian treaty in 1951.
What was agreed upon in the 1953 agreement regarding Sudan?
Britain made an agreement with Nasser on the steps to Sudan’s independence, which had been governed as a condominium since 1899.
This marked a shift in British colonial policy.
What was the significance of the 1954 agreement over the Suez Canal?
Britain agreed to a phased withdrawal from the Suez Canal Zone in exchange for free access through the canal and the maintenance of bases.
The Suez Canal Company would revert to Egypt in 1968.
What was the Baghdad Agreement of 1955?
A treaty made by Britain with Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, and Persia to repel Soviet threats in the Middle East.
Nasser refused to join and encouraged Jordan not to sign.
What led to the nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956?
Nasser seized control of the Suez Canal Company as retaliation for Britain and the USA withdrawing financial aid for the Aswan High Dam project.
This move was popular in Egypt and the Middle East.
What was the Sèvres Protocol?
A secret plan between Britain, France, and Israel to invade Egypt and remove Nasser from power.
Israel would invade first, followed by British and French forces under the guise of a ceasefire.
What was the outcome of the invasion of Egypt in 1956?
The invasion faced fierce Egyptian resistance, leading to international disapproval and forcing Britain to withdraw its troops.
Nasser called for ships to be sunk to block the canal.
Why did Britain have to withdraw its troops from Egypt?
Britain miscalculated international reactions, faced guerrilla attacks, and suffered a currency crisis due to oil shortages.
The USA only agreed to financial help if Britain withdrew its forces.
What were the consequences of the Suez Crisis for British power?
Britain’s ability to act unilaterally in international affairs was diminished, leading to a loss of influence and credibility in managing its empire.
Nationalist movements gained momentum, making it harder for Britain to contain them.
What was Macmillan’s public stance on the Empire?
He had no plans for an abrupt withdrawal and believed Britain should remain a great world power.
Macmillan publicly denied any intention of giving up the Empire.
What was the reality of Macmillan’s views on the Empire behind the scenes?
He privately criticized those favoring rapid decolonization and considered the dangers of leaving quickly.
He wanted to hand over power to colonies that were ready.
Who was appointed as colonial secretary in 1959, and what was significant about this?
MacLeod was appointed and was seen as sympathetic to African aspirations and favoring rapid decolonization.
His appointment indicated a shift in policy towards decolonization.
How did the British government respond to the events in the colonies during Macmillan’s tenure?
The government responded pragmatically to events rather than following a common policy.
This approach changed after the 1959 general election.
What inspired the African elite after WW2?
The Atlantic Charter
The Atlantic Charter outlined principles for the post-war world, including self-determination, which resonated with African leaders seeking independence.
What economic changes contributed to the growth of African nationalism post-WW2?
Urbanisation increased and colonies became more economically independent
Economic independence allowed for greater dissemination of nationalist ideas among the population.
What sentiment did many Africans feel towards British rule after WW2?
They felt they were being exploited by Britain.
What idea regarding race was no longer acceptable after WW2?
The idea of white supremacy.
What was the significance of Ghana’s independence in 1957?
It set a precedent for other African countries gaining independence and Nkrumah encouraged independence movements elsewhere.
What did Macmillan do during his 1960 tour of Africa?
He went on a 6-week tour and spoke to the South African parliament in Cape Town.
What key points did Macmillan’s Wind of Change speech emphasize?
National consciousness, inevitability of black majority rule, need for national policies to accept nationalism, and the importance of not ignoring these changes
The speech highlighted the shift in attitudes towards colonial rule and the urgent need for decolonization.
What was the Conservative party’s stance on decolonization after Macmillan’s speech?
They accepted decolonization and the end of British control in Africa.
What was happening to France and Belgium’s colonies in Africa during this time?
France struggled to keep Algeria, leading to independence for Algeria and most of its other colonies; Belgium pulled out of the Congo in 1960.
How did the independence movements in France and Belgium affect British colonies?
It made it harder to sustain a case for delay in granting independence to British colonies.
What was Macmillan’s preferred course of action regarding power in Africa?
Rapid devolution of power.
Why did the Cold War encourage Macmillan to consider rapid decolonisation?
Charges of imperialism and racism, fear of communism, and the potential for Russian intervention in Africa.
What event led to South Africa leaving the Commonwealth?
The Sharpeville massacre in March 1960 where 67 Africans were killed.
What did Macmillan recognize about the British public’s attitude towards the Empire?
The public were increasingly indifferent to Empire and unlikely to support new military burdens.
What experiences weakened the British government’s resolve to hold onto its Empire?
Bitter experiences in Palestine, Egypt, and Cyprus.
What did Macmillan and the Cabinet accept by 1960 regarding the Empire?
They accepted a rapid withdrawal from Empire due to lack of strategic or economic reasons.
Why was it difficult for politicians opposing decolonisation to gain public support?
Few Britons thought the empire was worth fighting for, and the media was predominantly liberal
Public interest had shifted to more immediate concerns, such as economic issues.
How serious were Britain’s attempts to bring Rhodesia under control?
No country recognised the new government in Rhodesia
* Harold Wilson imposed an ineffectual trade boycott
* Wilson made it clear his government would not use force to invade Rhodesia
* Critics claimed Britain could have overthrown Ian Smith’s government but chose not to
* South Africa supported Southern Rhodesia, undermining the economic blockade
Ian Smith was the Prime Minister of Rhodesia who declared independence unilaterally from Britain.
What involvement did Britain continue to have ‘East of Suez’ in the mid-60s?
Efforts to maintain British influence ‘east of Suez’
* 100,000 British service personnel were based east of Suez
* Concerns over instability and communist takeover influenced decisions
This presence was at a huge expense to Britain.
In what ways did Britain continue to be involved in Malaya after 1957?
Assumed responsibility for the Federation of Malaya’s defence
* Supported the idea of a Federation of Malaysia in 1961
* Provided military assistance to Malaysia against Indonesia
* Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965
The Federation included Malaya, Singapore, and parts of North Borneo.
Why was Aden important to the British in the late 1950s?
Used as a springboard for defending interests in the Middle East
* Major British base
* Threatened by Arab nationalism, especially from Yemen
Aden was strategically significant for British control in the region.
How did Britain try to strengthen its position in Aden in 1963?
Created a new South Arabian Federation from small sheikhdoms
This move was aimed at consolidating British influence in the region.
Why did Britain abandon its base in Aden in 1967?
The Federation didn’t resolve issues and terrorism increased
* Britain abandoned Aden after a long struggle
The decision was part of broader decolonization efforts.
How did the Commonwealth continue to grow between 1963-66?
23 countries joined the Commonwealth
* Examples include:
* Trinidad and Tobago (August 1962)
* Uganda (October 1962)
* Malawi (July 1964)
* Malta (September 1964)
* Zambia (October 1964)
* The Gambia (February 1965)
* Singapore (August 1965)
* Guyana (May 1966)
* Botswana (September 1966)
* Lesotho (October 1966)
* Barbados (November 1966)
The British government promoted the Commonwealth as a multiracial fraternity.
What issues did the British government face with the New Commonwealth?
Hopes for the Commonwealth were not realised
* Criticism of the Commonwealth as a ‘gigantic farce’
* Attempt to sustain British prestige while concealing power decay
* New members sought to influence British policy
* United policy on issues was difficult to achieve
The Commonwealth’s effectiveness was questioned during this period.
What evidence is there that bonds with the old Dominions were weakening at this time?
Strained relationships with Australia, New Zealand, and Canada
* Canada replaced the Red Ensign with the Maple Leaf flag
* Shock over Britain’s application to join the EEC in 1961
* Recognition that Asia was key to future
Despite weakening ties, the Commonwealth still provided support among members.
Why did Britain apply to join the ECC in 1963?
Declining share of world’s manufacturing exports
* Growing trade deficit
* Shift in trading focus towards Western Europe
* EEC’s purchasing power exceeded that of the Commonwealth
This marked a significant economic pivot for Britain.
What did the application reveal about Britain’s views of the Empire and Commonwealth?
Indicated abandonment of hopes for a viable Commonwealth
* Recognition that economic future lay with Europe
This shift reflected a broader trend of decolonization.
What was the outcome of Britain’s application to join the ECC in 1963 and 1967?
Both applications were rejected
* The French conspired to keep Britain out
These rejections highlighted tensions within Europe regarding Britain’s role.
What was left of the British Empire in 1967?
Some areas too small to become sovereign nations
* Several military bases, notably Gibraltar
* Southern Rhodesia
* The Falkland Islands
* Hong Kong until 1997
This period marked the decline of British imperial presence globally.
Why did few regard the end of the Empire as a national humiliation?
Most accepted the Empire’s demise as inevitable
* Critics of ‘scuttle’ were branded anachronistic
* Roy Jenkins advocated for European integration and ending military commitments
This perspective reflected a shift in British national identity post-empire.
What was the initial impact of the Cold War on British imperialism?
The emergence of the Cold War gave a renewed impetus to British imperialism.
Why did it suit the USA to have a strong Britain during the Cold War?
It suited the USA to resist communist advances across the globe.
How did the USA respond to British control over its colonies post-war?
The USA turned a blind eye, especially when it involved driving out communist insurgents.
What was the Truman Doctrine of 1947?
It pledged the USA’s help to countries resisting subjugation, particularly against communism.
What financial support did the USA provide to Greece and Turkey?
The USA provided financial and military aid as Britain withdrew from the region.
From 1947, what strategy did the USA adopt to prevent communism?
Building up stable and economically prosperous countries dependent on American loans and capitalist practices.
What was the amount provided to Britain through the Marshall Plan?
$3.3 billion.
What was Britain’s reliance for defense during the Cold War?
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and America’s nuclear capacity.
What was the Anglo-America Mutual Defence Agreement of 1958?
It provided American assistance for the development of a British nuclear arsenal.
Which countries were part of the South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) formed in 1954?
- Australia
- France
- New Zealand
- Pakistan
- The Philippines
- Thailand
- Britain
- USA
What was the significance of SEATO in the context of the Cold War?
It acknowledged the need for an American-led protective alliance following the Korean War.
Fill in the blank: The USA was prepared to step in when British support for the monarchists fighting communists in _______ could no longer be sustained.
Greece.
True or False: Britain developed its own nuclear weapons before 1952.
False.
