3.2 - Colonial Policy and Administration Flashcards
What was Diarchy?
A system of double government introduced by the Government of India Act in 1919 for the provinces of India.
It marked the first introduction of democracy into the British governance of India.
Who introduced Diarchy?
Edwin Montagu (The Secretary of State for India) and Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy).
What powers did provincial governors have under Diarchy?
- Law and order
- Justice
- Police
- Land revenue (tax)
- Irrigation
What powers did Indian ministers control under Diarchy?
- Education
- Public health
- Public works
- Agriculture
- Forests
- Fisheries
How did the Government of India Act 1919 change the legislative structure?
The legislative council was split into a lower house (the legislative assembly) and an upper house (the Council of State).
What was the composition of the legislative assembly and Council of State under the Government of India Act 1919?
- Legislative assembly: 104/144 elected
- Council of State: 34/60 elected
What could the Viceroy do in an emergency under the Government of India Act 1919?
Legislate by decree for 6 months.
What did the British hope to achieve with the reforms of the Government of India Act 1919?
They hoped to weaken popular support for critics of British rule in the Indian Congress.
What did the Simon Commission recommend?
- A federal system of government across India
- Provinces to be given more power
- Defence, international security, and foreign affairs to remain under British control
What was significant about the Round Table Conferences in 1930 and 1931?
No agreement was reached, and Britain rejected self-governing status for India.
What major changes did the Government of India Act 1935 introduce?
- Provinces became completely self-governing
- Expanded the franchise from 7 to 35 million people
- Proposed an all-India federation including princely states
What was the composition of the elected Indian parliament envisioned by the Government of India Act 1935?
- 1/3 appointed by princes
- 2/3 elected
- 1/3 of elected seats reserved for Muslims
Why did the Congress Party oppose the India Act?
It fell short of the independence of the white dominions and they wanted to be completely free of British rule.
What was the response of princely states to the India Act?
They rejected federal India because they wanted to retain their independence.
What was a consequence of the outbreak of WW2 for British rule in India?
Members of Congress-controlled ministers in the provinces resigned from office.
What factors shaped British policy in India?
- Nationalism
- Economy
- The need to preserve British authority and delay independence
- World Wars
- Key Individuals
What was the main factor influencing British policy in India?
The need to preserve British power.
What characterized the governance of white settler colonies?
Substantial numbers of Europeans settled and British ruled directly through their own officials
A 1929 Royal Commission argued that African interests had to be paramount
How did white settlers exercise dominance in Kenya?
Pressure for self-government in 1920, power to 20-30,000 white settlers, exclusion of Kikuyu from fertile lands, heavy taxation on Kikuyu, and banning Kikuyu from growing commercial products
White settlers grew rich by cultivating tea and coffee
What was the Devonshire Declaration of 1923?
Stressed that African interests had to be respected
Needed due to the stirrings of African nationalism among the Kikuyu
What was the political situation in Southern Rhodesia in 1923?
The white population had taken political power and won effective self-government
Similar dominance as seen in other white settler colonies
Why were whites able to dominate ethnic minorities in South Africa?
Erosion of promises protecting ethnic minorities, control over internal affairs by the 1930s, and the Statute of Westminster of 1931 enhancing white dominance
Dominion status was granted in 1910
How were the colonies of indirect rule governed?
Ruled through existing local rulers
Strategy was extended to League of Nations mandates from 1919
What economic and social development initiatives did Britain promote in its colonies?
Gezira Cotton Scheme, £10m for rail and dock facilities in East Africa, investments in education, and agricultural research stations
Leo Amery aimed to create an East African Dominion but faced cabinet opposition
Why were Britain’s development initiatives in African colonies limited?
Expected to be self-financing and limited funding available due to post-WWI constraints
Major projects funded mainly by local taxes from Africans
What was the Colonial Development Act of 1929?
Allocated £1m for development projects across the Empire
Considered tokenistic and ineffectual for the needed development
What factors contributed to growing dissatisfaction in African colonies?
Global impact of the Great Depression, limited imperial development policy, waves of strikes, urbanization, and divided communities
Nationalism grew due to worsening conditions in towns
What factors shaped British policy in its African colonies?
White settler actions, economic concerns, impact of war, and nationalism
Economic concerns were the primary factor influencing investment and limiting development
What were the strategic ambitions of Britain in the Middle East?
To protect the Suez Canal and the land route to India
These ambitions were part of broader British interests in maintaining control over the region.
What economic interest did Britain have in the Middle East?
Preserve their access to oil in the region
Oil was crucial for British economic interests and military operations.
What was one of the international rivalries that influenced British policy in the Middle East?
Maintain their great power status
This involved demonstrating power through territorial control after WW1.
What was Britain’s approach to local societies in the Middle East?
Interference was kept to a minimum to avoid an Arab revolt
This strategy aimed to maintain stability while exerting control.
How did Britain control territories in the Middle East?
Through friendly local rulers who depended on British military assistance
This approach allowed Britain to exert influence without direct governance.
What was the aim of the British colonial administration in Palestine?
To ensure Palestine’s strategic importance as a buffer state and maintain internal stability
This was crucial for the protection of the Suez Canal.
What challenges did Britain face in fulfilling its aims in Palestine?
Financial strain post WW1, ethnic tensions, and disagreement between British authorities
These issues complicated governance and stability in the region.
What key development occurred in British governance of Palestine in 1929?
An enquiry called for curbing the Jewish policy of land acquisition
This was a response to growing tensions and was influenced by pro-Jewish sentiment.
What was the impact of Hitler becoming chancellor in 1933 on Palestine?
Accelerated Jewish immigration into Palestine
This immigration was a response to the rising threat of anti-Semitism in Europe.
What did the Peel Report of 1937 recommend?
Partition into separate Arab and Jewish areas
This recommendation was opposed by the Arab population.
What was the British position in Palestine at the outbreak of WW2?
Policy reversal outraged Jews and did not satisfy Arabs
Britain aimed for temporary stability amid growing tensions.
How did Britain ultimately withdraw from Palestine?
Referred the problem to the UN and announced they would quit in 1947
This decision was influenced by disagreements over partition and immigration.
When was Egypt made a Protectorate?
1914
This marked the beginning of direct British control over Egypt.
What did the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 entail?
British troops withdrew to defend only the Suez Canal Zone
This treaty marked a shift in British military presence in Egypt.
What major challenge did Britain face in governing Mesopotamia?
Widespread Muslim demonstrations turned into a revolt in 1920
This revolt forced Britain to intervene militarily.
What was a significant outcome of the Cairo Conference in 1921?
Allowed for some local self-government while retaining full British control
This was an attempt to placate local leaders while maintaining British authority.
What did the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1922 confirm?
Confirmed Faisal I as king
Faisal was seen as a compromise leader who could work with the British.
What was a success of Britain’s granting of independence to Iraq in 1932?
Retained influence in the area while granting independence on British terms
This ensured continued economic and military ties.
What factors shaped British policy in the Middle East?
Nationalism, ethnic tensions, economies, and strategic concerns
Strategic and military concerns were the most important for protecting interests.
What was the position of the Dominions in 1914?
The British cabinet committed them to the war and they cooperated well during the war.
How did the perception of the Dominions change during WW1?
They increasingly saw themselves as equal parties with Britain and were essentially self-governing (except for foreign policy).
Why was it difficult for Britain to please all the Dominions?
Britain was not prepared to accept limits to its freedom and the Dominions disagreed with each other on issues such as the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
What was the consequence of the Chanak Crisis 1922?
It showed that the diplomatic unity of the dominions was a fiction, the policy of continuous consultation was dropped, and the Dominions pursued their own policies.
What happened in the Imperial Conferences in the Inter-War period?
They were an effort to maintain a pretense of unity and were held in London at increasingly irregular intervals.
What was the Dominions’ view regarding Imperial Defence?
Few Dominion representatives attended the Committee of Imperial Defence meetings, they were reluctant to share the burden, and relied on Britain for security.
To what extent were the Dominions independent in the early 1920s?
They were practically independent, but this was not formal independence.
What did the 1926 Commonwealth Conference agree upon?
The dominions were ‘autonomous communities within the empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs.’
How did WW2 affect the relationship between Britain and the Dominions?
It emphasized the difference between Britain and its Dominions, with Eire remaining neutral and many South Africans not wanting to fight.
What significant action did Canada take in 1940?
Canada set up a Joint Defence Board with the USA.
What was the impact of the Fall of Singapore?
It made clear Britain’s inability to protect Australia and New Zealand, leading them to turn to America for help in 1942.
What was the nature of Ireland’s relationship with Britain post-1922?
Ireland cooperated with Britain for 10 years after the 1922 settlement.
What did the new Irish constitution of 1937 claim?
It laid claim to all 32 counties of Ireland and described Eire as ‘a sovereign, independent, domestic state.’
What was the political situation in South Africa in 1924?
The Afrikaner Nationalist Party came to power, causing problems for Britain.
What divisions affected Canada and Newfoundland?
They were affected by divisions between French and English-speaking communities.
What was the impact of the growing threat from Japan on Australia and New Zealand?
It seemed to strengthen their friendship with Britain.
What was the Statute of Westminster 1931?
It allowed certain Dominions to become independent nations and stated that laws passed in Britain were not automatically passed in Dominions.
When did the Dominions accept the terms of the Statute of Westminster?
It had an immediate effect in Canada, South Africa, and the Irish Free State; Australia in 1942 and New Zealand in 1947.
How did the British government and media present developments in the Dominions?
As evidence of the civilized nature of the empire and a way to ensure global influence without the cost of imperial rule.
What made imperial defence difficult for Britain in the inter-war period?
Severe economic difficulties, new aggressive regimes in the 1930s, and the rise of nationalist movements.
What strategy did Britain adopt to defend the Empire in the 1920s and 30s?
They put faith in the League of Nations and adopted a policy of appeasement.
How did appeasement strengthen ties with the Dominions?
It allowed them to strengthen their defence in Asia against a possible attack from Japan.
