4.1.1 Flashcards

1
Q

What organism causes TB?

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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2
Q

What is the transmission of TB?

A

droplets of water in air
released through sneezing and coughing
inhaled by uninfected individual

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3
Q

What parts of the world are most likely to get TB?

A

overcrowded
poorly-ventilated
have poor diet/malnutrition
homelessness
eating meat / drinking milk from infected cattle

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4
Q

What organism causes bacterial meningitis?

A

sterptococcus penumoniae

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5
Q

What is the transmission of bacterial meningitis?

A

direct transmission
touch, kissing

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6
Q

What organism causes ringrot?

A

Clavibacter michiganesis

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7
Q

How is ringrot transmitted?

A

through vectors like insects
leaving spores in soil
indirect transmission

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8
Q

What organism causes HIV / AIDS?

A

Virus

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9
Q

What does HIV stand for?

A

Human Immunodeficiency virus

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10
Q

What does AIDS stand for?

A

Autoimmune deficiency

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11
Q

What does HIV/AIDS do to the immune system?

A

destroys T helper cells

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12
Q

What happens because T helper cells are killed by HIV/AIDS

A

Resistance to infection is lowered as T helper cells fight infection

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13
Q

What organism causes influennza?

A

virus

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14
Q

How is influenza transmitted?

A

caused by spreadf of virus
through air coughs and sneezes
touching contaminated surfaces
DIRECT and INDIRECT

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15
Q

What organism causes Tobacco mosaic virus?

A

Virus

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16
Q

How is TMV transmitted?

A

leaves of different plants rubbing together
leaving spores in soil
Direct transmission

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17
Q

What organism causes Malaria?

A

vector - female mosquito

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18
Q

How is malaria transmitted?

A

mosquito feeds on human by biting them
parasite passes from saliva of female mosquito into blood stream

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19
Q

What happens when the plasmodium parasite enters the blood stream?

A

infects hepatocytes and erythrocytes causes disruption to blood flow to vital organs

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20
Q

What organism causes potato/tomato late blight?

A

protoctista

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21
Q

How is potato/tomato late blight transmitted?

A

transferred through water eg rain
indirect contact

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22
Q

What is ringworm in cattle caused by?

A

fungi

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23
Q

How is ring worm spread through cattle?

A

direct contact through cattle

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24
Q

What causes athletes foot?

A

fungi - Tinea Pedis

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25
Q

How is athletes foot transmitted?

A

direct contact with infection by skin particles left on towels, shoes, floors

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26
Q

What is black sigatoka is caused by?

A

fungus - Mycosphaerella fijiiensis

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27
Q

How is black sigatoka transmitted?

A

spores carried by wind and water

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28
Q

Why may people object to using insecticides to get rid of malaria?

A

destruction of a species is morally wrong

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29
Q

What indicates the malarial parasite is not a prokaryote?

A

has a nucleus
has mitochondria / golgi
linera chromosomes
DNA associates with histones
80S ribosomes
no cell wall

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30
Q

What is health?

A

physical and mental social well-being
good nutrition
suitably housed
free from disease/illness

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31
Q

What is disease?

A

impairment of an organisms normal functioning
malfunctioning of body or mind
symptoms may be physical, mental or social

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32
Q

What is a parasite?

A

an organism that lives in or on and harms the host

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33
Q

How does a paraasite harm the host?

A

take their nutrition
feeds on host

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34
Q

Example of parasite?

A

Plasmodium

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35
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

Micro-organisms that cause disease

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36
Q

How do bacteria cause disease?

A

damaging cell
releasing toxins

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37
Q

What speed do bacteria reproduce?

A

fast

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38
Q

What is an example of bacteria?

A

cholera

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39
Q

Where does fungi live?

A

in the skin

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40
Q

What does fungi do to skin?

A

Sends out reproductive hyphae
they grow out to the surface of the skin and release spores

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41
Q

What do viruses do to cells?

A

invade cells
take over genetic machinery and other organelles of the cell

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42
Q

What do protoctista do?

A

enters host cells and feeds on contents as it grows

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43
Q

How does the plasmodium feed on the contents of RBC

A

IMMATURE FORM THAT FEEDS ON CONTENTS

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44
Q

What are some examples of indirect contact?

A

Vector born
Vehicle born - air, dust, blood, water, food

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45
Q

What are some examples of direct contact?

A

mother to baby through placenta
touching , kissing

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46
Q

What polysaccharide is released when plants are attacked as a physical defence?

A

Callose

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47
Q

How fast is callose released?

A

within minutes

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48
Q

Where is callose deposited?

A

into cell wals

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49
Q

What reinforces callose when it is deposited into cell wall?

A

lignin

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50
Q

What is beneficial about callose being reinforced with lignin?

A

provides a thicker barrier for pathogen to penetrate through

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51
Q

What does callose block in the phloem?

A

sieve tube end plates

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52
Q

What does callose do to infected areas?

A

seals it off

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53
Q

What does callose block between infected cells?

A

plasmodesmata

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54
Q

What is beneficial about having Tannins as a chemical defence?

A

bitter taste

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55
Q

What is beneficial about antibacterial compounds being a chemical defence of a plant?

A

disrupts cell wall/ membranes of bacterua

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56
Q

What is an example of an anti-fungal compound?

A

chitinases

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57
Q

What is beneficial about chitinases being a chemical defence?

A

enzymes released to break down chitin in cell wall

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58
Q

What is beneficial about anti-oomycetes being released from plants?

A

breaks down cell walls on fungi

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59
Q

What does the skin act as?

A

barrier

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60
Q

What do skin flora do?

A

outcompete pathogens

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61
Q

What happens to pathogens as a result of skin flora?

A

no longer alive

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62
Q

What does the thi layer of dead cells on skin act as?

A

barrier to pathogens

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63
Q

What is beneficil about sebum on skin?

A

prevents pathogen growth

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64
Q

What do goblet cells line?

A

Airways
lungs
digestive systems

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65
Q

What do goblet cells do?

A

trap microorganisms

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66
Q

What happens to microorganisms trapped by goblet cells?

A

destroyed by phagocytes and lysozyme

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67
Q

What is a primary defence in the stomach?

A

HCL

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68
Q

What is a primary defence in our ears?

A

wax

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69
Q

What is a primary defence in our eyes?

70
Q

What primary defences are in the female reproductive system ?

A

acidic conditions

71
Q

What are histamines released by?

A

mast cellsW

72
Q

What do histamines do?

A

detect infection

73
Q

What does histamine do to arterioles?

74
Q

What does arteriole dilation cause?

A

localised heat and redness

75
Q

What does the inc in temp do to histamines?

A

prevents pathogens from reproducing

76
Q

What will histamines do to the capillaries?

A

make them more leaky

77
Q

What does making capillaries more leaky cause?

A

more tissue fluid to form
(swelling)

78
Q

What 2 things does swelling cause to happen?

A

more WBC to be brung to that area
morefluid enters lymphatic system

79
Q

What do cytokines do?

A

attract more phagocytes to infected area

80
Q

Why do cytokines attract more phagocytes to the infected area?

A

so cytokines can dispose of them by phagocytosis

81
Q

What is excess tissue fluid drained into?

A

lymphatic system

82
Q

What will pathogens enter before being transported to lymph nodes?

83
Q

What will pathogens be transpirted to after entering the lymph?

A

lymph nodes

84
Q

What happens when lymph nodes swell?

A

produces phagocytes and lymphocytes

85
Q

What are expulsive reflexes?

A

coughing
sneezing

86
Q

What is a non-specific defence mechanism?

A

Response is immediate and the same for all pathogens

87
Q

What is a specific defence-mechanism?

A

Response is slower and is specific to each pathogen

88
Q

What are 2 non-specific defence mechanisms?

A

Physical barrier
Phagocytoss

89
Q

What are 2 specific defence mechanisms?

A

Cell-mediated response
Hummoral response

90
Q

What is engulfed in phagocytosis?

91
Q

What is formed when the pathogen is engulfed?

92
Q

What moves towards the phagosome?

93
Q

What do hydrolytic enzymes do to the pathogen?

A

break it down

94
Q

What happens to harmless products in phagocytosis?

A

absorbed into cytoplasm

95
Q

What is formed at the end of phagocytosis?

A

Antigen presenting cell

96
Q

Outline phagocytosis?

A

Pathogen enguled

Phagosome formed

Lysosomes fuse with phagososme

Lysins break down pathogen by hydrolysis

Harmless products absorbed into cytoplasm

APC formed

97
Q

What are cytokines released from?

A

T helper cells

98
Q

What deos cytokines trigger?

A

clonal expansion of B cells

99
Q

What do opsonins do?

A

process by which an antibody binds to another substance

100
Q

What shape nucleus do neutrophils have?

101
Q

What nucleus do lymphovytes have?

102
Q

What structure do erythrocytes have?

103
Q

What structure do monocytes have?

A

unilobular nuelci

104
Q

What is an immune response?

A

response to an antigen

Involves lymphocytes / production of antibodies

105
Q

What is special about the receptors on the T helper cell?

A

they are specific and complimentary to the APC’s antigens

106
Q

What is clonal selection?

A

T helper cell identifies a foreign antigen from a foreign pathogen in the body

107
Q

What happens after clonal selection in cell-mediated response?

A

clonal expansion

108
Q

What cell undergoes clonal expansion in cell-mediated response??

A

T helper cell

109
Q

What process happens during clonal expansion in cell-mediated response? ?q

110
Q

What 4 cells does clonal expansion produce in cell-mediated response??

A

T helper cells
T killer cells
T memory cells
T regulatory cells

111
Q

What is the cell-mediated response?

A

T helper cell’s receptors identify the antigens on the APC as foreign.
T helper cell undergoes clonal expansion by mitosis
4 cell types produced
T helper
T killer
T memory
T regulatory

112
Q

What type of cell is used in cell mediated response?

113
Q

What does the T helper cell do in the hummoral response?

A

undergoes clonal expansion after receptors identify foreign antigen on APC

114
Q

What chemicals does the T helper cells release in the hummoral response?

A

interleukins
cytokines

115
Q

What cells undergo clonal expansion in hummoral response?

116
Q

What is clonal expansion?

A

cells differentiate into other cell types

117
Q

What cells are produced in clonal expansion in the hummoral response?

A

B memory cells
Plasma cells

118
Q

Why are plasma cells useful?

A

make antibodies

119
Q

Why are B memory cells useful?

A

Allows immune system tor rememeber previous antigens so antibodies can be produced quiclker

120
Q

Why are T helper cells useful?

A

identify antigens

121
Q

Why are T killer cells sueful?

A

kill our own body cells that have been infected

122
Q

Why are T memory cells useful?

A

allows body to recognise the same antigen so antibodies can be quixkl produced

123
Q

Why are T regulatory cells useful?

A

suppresses immune system
maintain homeostasis
prevents autoimmune disease

124
Q

Which response primary or secondary will generate the most antibodies?

125
Q

Why is the secondayr immune response shorter and quicker than primary?

A

no memory cells in primary
(T and B)
clonal selection and expansion occur quicker in secondary
more plasma cells
so more antibodies being made

126
Q

What is herd vaccination?

A

high % of people have immunity

127
Q

What is ring vaccination?

A

most vulnerable are protected

128
Q

What molecule is an antibody?

129
Q

How many polypeptide chains in an antibody?

130
Q

How many light and heavy polypeptide chains?

A

2 light and 2 heavy

131
Q

What is special about the variable region on an antibody?

A

complimenary and specific to an antigen

132
Q

What is the role of the hinge region?

A

allows antibody to bind to more than 1 antigen or pathogen

133
Q

What does the constant region allow?

A

allows antibodies to find phagocytes

134
Q

Whateffect does opsonins have on phagocytosis?

A

inc chance

135
Q

Why do opsonins inc chance of phagocytosis?

A

antibody can bind o both pathogen and phagocyte

136
Q

What is agglutination?

A

pathogens clump together

137
Q

Why does agglutination happen?

A

makes pathogens too large to enter the host cell and inc likelihod of phagocytosis

138
Q

What is neutralisation?

A

antibodies cover binding sites on the pathogen or bind to toxins

139
Q

Why do antibodies cover binding sites on the pathogen or bind to toxins?

A

prevent binding or entry into the host cell

140
Q

How is artificial immunity achieved?

A

MAN-MADE
USUALLY THROUGH INJECTIONS

141
Q

wHAT IS NATURAL IMMUNITY?

A

NATURAL CAUSE CATCHING A DISEASE

142
Q

What is pasive immuniuty ?

A

does not trigger an immune response

142
Q

What is active immunity?

A

does trigger an immune response

143
Q

What is an example of natural passive immunity?

A

antibodies provided by the placenta or by breast milk
allows the baby to be immune to diseases that the mother is immune to

144
Q

What is an example of artificial passive immunity?

A

an injecction of antibodies made by another individual

145
Q

What is an example of natural active immunity?

A

being infected by or sufferig suffering from a disease
causing body to produce antibodies and make mmroy cells

146
Q

What is artificial active immunity?

A

weakened or dead pathogen introduced by vaccination

147
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

abnormal immune response
against tissues normally in the body

149
Q

How does the autoimmune disease treat self-cells?

A

unable to recognise them as self
treats them as foreign

150
Q

What is lupus?

A

immune system attacks healthy cells
effects connective tissues/joints/skins

151
Q

What does rheumatoid athritis attack?

152
Q

Where are the joins that athritis attacks?

A

hands
wrists
feet
ankles

153
Q

What are the symptoms of lupus and athritis?

A

pain inflammation fatigue

154
Q

How to treat lupus and athritis?

A

pain killers
anti-inflammatories
steroids
immuno-supressants

155
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

attack insulin secreting beta cells of the pancreas

156
Q

How can type 1 diabetes be treated?

A

insulin injections

pancreatic transplant

immunosupressants

157
Q

What vaccinations prevent?

158
Q

Why is beneficial to vaccinate the population?

A

so that there is little impact on the economy (people can work)
cheaper to prevent a disease than treat an ill person

159
Q

Why are new vaccines generated each year?

A

different strains of the virus

different strains have different antigens

antibody produced needs to match the new antigen

160
Q

Why is it important to maintain biodiversity?

A

inc gene pool
pop more likely to withstand a change

source of potential medi

161
Q

How can pharmacogenetics be used to treat ill people?

A

predicts an organisms response to medical drugs by studying their genome

162
Q

What is MRSA?

A

a type of bacteria that is resistant to severly widely used antibiotics

163
Q

What is harder to treat MRSA infection or bacterial infections?

164
Q

How have resistant strands of bacteria evolved?

A

genetic variation within population

165
Q

What happens when a random mutation arises?

A

gives rise to antibiotic resistance allele

166
Q

What is the selection pressure of the bacteria?

A

antibiotics

167
Q

What happens to the allele coding for antibiotic resistance?

A

allele passed onto offspring

168
Q

What happens to allele frequency over many generations?

169
Q

How does bcteria become resistant?

A

variety ofbacteria
bathed in antibiotics
most normal bacteria die
resitant bacteria multiply and become more common
entire infection evolves into resistant strain