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2.1.6 Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up interphase?

A

G1
S phase
G2

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2
Q

What are the steps f the cell cycle?

A

G1
S phase
G2
Mitosis

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3
Q

What is the product of mitosis?

A

2 daughter cells
genetically identical

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4
Q

What happens in G1?

A

Cell growth
organelle growth
increase in number of organelles
protein synthesis

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5
Q

What happens in G2?

A

short gap before mitosis
cell growth
organelle growth
increase in number of organelles
protein synthesis
spindle can begin to form

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6
Q

What is the S phase?

A

DNA replication

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7
Q

Why does the S phase happen?

A

to ensure that
the daughter cells have the same/identical DNA and
a full copy of DNA

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8
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

cell divides into 2

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9
Q

What is the purpose of checkpoints?

A

regulating the cell cycle

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10
Q

What is the G0 checkpoint?

A

cell leaves cycle temporarily / permanently

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11
Q

Why does a cell enter the G0 checkpoint?

A

the cell has fully differentiated
DNA of cell is damaged so the cell will try to repair the DNA

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12
Q

What is the G1 checkpoint?

A

Checks if all requirements are met
so that DNA replication can begin

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13
Q

What happens if a problem is detected in a checkpoint?

A

cell goes to G0

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14
Q

When does the G1 checkpoint happen?

A

occurs between G1 and S phase

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15
Q

What is the G2 checkpoint?

A

checks for a mutation in the DNA
Daughter cells might not recieive identical genetic information
proteins might not function

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16
Q

What is the metaphase checkpoint?

A

metaphase cannot proceed until chromosomes have attached to spindles and are aligned correctly

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17
Q

Why does mitosis occur?

A

repair of damaged tissues / cells
growth of an organism

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18
Q

What happens to the nuclear envelope in prophase?

A

breaks down

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19
Q

What happens to the chromosomes in prophase?

A

condense

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20
Q

What happens to the spindle fibres in prophase?

A

attach to the centromere on the chromosomes

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21
Q

How do the chromosomes condense?

A

chromosomes wrap around histones to make them more dense

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22
Q

What happens to chromosomes in metaphase?

A

chromosomes line up along equator of cell

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23
Q

What happens to spindle fibres in prophase and metaphase ?

A

attach to the centromere on the chromosomes

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24
Q

What happens to chromatids in anaphase?

A

chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell

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25
What happens to the centromere in anaphase?
breaks
26
What do the spindle fibres do in anaphase?
contract
27
What happens to the nuclear envelope in telophase?
begins to form
28
What happens to the chromosomes in telophase?
uncoil
29
What happens to the cell surface membrane in telophase?
undergoes cytokinesis
30
What happens to spindle fibres in telophase?
break down
31
What happens in prophase?
nuclear envelope breaks down Chromosomes condense spindle fibres attach to the centromere on chromosomes
32
What happens in metaphase?
Chromosomes line up along equator of cell spindle fibres attach to the centromere on the chromosomes
33
What happens in anaphase?
chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibres contracting centromere breaks
34
What happens in telophase?
nuclear envelope begins to form chromosomes uncoil cell surface membrane undergoes cytokinesis spindle fibres break down
35
What does cytokinesis cause in an animal cell?
cleavage furrow
36
Why do we use the root tip?
mitosis occurs here
37
Why do we heat the plant sample in acid?
break down the cell wall
38
Why do we stain the sample?
Provide contrast make chromosomes more visible
39
Why is it important to squash the sample?
to make the sample as thin as possible 1 cell thick so light can pass through
40
How to calculate mitotic index?
cells in mitosis / total number of cells
41
What is a stem cell?
undifferentiated cell that can differentiate into any type of cell by mitosis
42
What are totipotent cells?
stem cells that can differentiate into any type of body cell can form extra-embryonic cells that can make up placenta and umbilical cord
43
What is the only totipotent cell?
zygote
44
What are pluripotent stem cells?
stem cells that can form any type of body cell BUT cannot form extra-embryonic cells
45
What are multipotent stem cells?
stem cells that can form more than 1 cell type BUT not all cell types
46
What is an exmaple of multipotent stem cells?
adult stem cells
47
How do stem cells make erythrocytes ?
stem cell from bone marrow differentiate by mitosis removes nucleus create lots of HbHow do
48
How do stem cells make neutrophils?
stem cell from bone marrow differentiates by mitosis stem cell change sshape of nucleus to be lobed stem cell will need to produce lysosomes
49
Where is meristem found?
vascular cambium
50
How do meristem make xylem and phloem?
meristem undergoes differentiation
51
How is xylem formed?
lignin reinforces and waterproofs wall provides strength against negative pressure cell dies creates a hollow tube tube limits lateral movement of water allows adhesion
52
How is phloem formed?
cells stretch and elongate to form sieve tube elements has gaps which allow transport of assimilates like sucrose and amino acids companion cells provide atp
53
What neurological conditions can stem cells be used to treat?
Alzheimers Parkinsons
54
What are the features of RBC?
no nucleus, mitochondria, golgi or RER packed with Hb biconcave
55
How does the features of a RBC aid in their function?
lack of organelles allows erythrocyte to be packed with Hb -> so it can carry a large volume of oxygen biconcave disk shape of the cell increases surface area: volume ratio so gas exchange is more efficient
56
What are the features of a neutrophil?
nucleus cytoplasm appears granular due to enormous numbers of lysosomes
57
How do the features of a neutrophil aid in it's function?
lysosomes contain digestive / hydrolytic enzymes that break down engulfed particles they have a flexible shape which helps them engulf foreign particles / pathogens
58
What are the features of squamous epithelium cells?
flattened to form a thin, smooth, flat surface lines tube such as blood vessels epithelial tissue is held in place by the basement membrane
59
How do the features of squamous epithelium aid diffusion?
squamous epithelium are very thin and so allow efficient diffusion of gases as there is a short diffusion distance these cells can be found in lining of lungs
60
What are ciliated epithelial cells?
column shaped cells usually on inner surface of tubes cilia wave in a synchronised rhythm to move mucus
61
Why do smokers get bad cough?
cilia on cells are damaged and so cant move the mucus that captures particles
62
What are the features of the sperm cell?
ATP for movement specialised lysosome in acrosome shape aids movement flagellum helps propel the cell contains half the number of chromosmes
63
Why is their lysosome in the head of the acrosome?
contains digestive enzymes that allow the sperm cell to penetrate the surface of the egg cell
64
What are the features of the palisade cell?
long thin tightly packed loads of chloroplasts spongy mesophyll under palisade have air spaces for circulation
65
How do the features of the palisade cell aid their function?
absorb a lot of sunlight and perform the most photosynthesis many chloroplasts increase efficiency of photosynthesis
66
What are the features of the guard cells and stomata?
allows gas exchange guard cell son each side that open the stomata and open when turgid and close the stomata when turgid
67
How do the guard cells become turgid?
take up water by osmosis thin outer walls and thick inner walls bend the cells to open stomata
68
What are the features or the root hair cell?
increased SA:V ratio thin walls
69
How do the features of a root cell aid in their function?
inc SA:V ration allows greater uptake of water ad minerals thin walls allow efficient gas exchange
70
What are tissues?
same type of cell working together for the same function
71
What are some examples of tissues?
epithelilal tissue connective tissue muscle tissue
72
What is an organ?
groups of different tissues working together for the same function
73
What does the epithelilal tissue do?
lines the organs
74
What does the connective tissue do?
adds support and structure
75
What does the muscle tissue do?
contracts
76
What are organ systems made of?
different organs
77
What makes up organisms?
organ systems
78
What is the role of the squamous epithelium tissue?
allows for a thin diffusion pathway
79
What is the role of the cillliated epithelial tissue?
wafts mucus to back of the throat
80
How do squamous and ciliated epithelial cells work together?
aid diffusion of gases / clear airways
81
What is the role of the cartilage>?
holds the trachea open under negative pressure
82
What is the role of the muscle tissue?
contracts to constrict the airway
83
How do muscle tissue and cartilage work together?
they work together in the lungs in controlling ventillation
84
What is the role of the xylem?
transports water up the plant for transpiration?
85
What is the role of the phloem tissue?
transports assimilates up and down the plant in translocation
86
How so xylem tissue and phloem tissue work together?
create vascular bundles in the plant
87
What are homologous chromosomes?
1 is maternal 1 is paternal same genes different alleles same length centromere in the same place
88
What does meiosis produce?
4 genetically different hapolid daughter cells gamates
89
Why does the haploid happen?
so that they can form a zygote that is diploid
90
What happens in prophase I?
chromatin condenses homolgous chromsomes for a bivalent nucleolus disappears spindle forms crossing over
91
What happens in anaphase I?
homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are pulled to opposite poles and the bivalent splits
92
What happens to metaphase 1?
Bivalents line up on equator of cell independent assortment
93
What happens in telophase?
2 new nuclear envelopes form cell divides by cytokinesis
94
What does crossing over cause?
new combo of alleles
95
What happens in metaphase 1?
independent assortment
96
What happens in prophase 2?
Nucleolus dissappears chromosmes condense spindle forms
97
What is metaphase 2?
chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator attach by centromere to spindle fibres independent assortment
98
What is anaphase II?
centromeres divide chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles
99
What is telophase 2?
nuclear envelope reforms around haploid nuclei cell divides by cytokinesis
100

Biology (26 decks)

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