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Biology AS Rafa > 4.1 Communicable Diseases (up to secondary defence) > Flashcards

4.1 Communicable Diseases (up to secondary defence) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A microorganism that causes disease

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2
Q

What are hyphae and mycelium?

A

Hyphae are clusters of cells in a fungus that grow in a branch-like design; mycelium are large groups of hyphae

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3
Q

Where do bacteria live in plants?

A

Vascular tissue

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4
Q

Where does fungus most often live in plants?

A

Vascular tissue

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5
Q

What are the four types of pathogen that we need to know?

A

Bacteria, viruses, fungi and protoctista

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6
Q

What diseases are caused by bacteria?

A

TB, bacterial meningitis, ring rot (potatoes and tomatoes)

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7
Q

What diseases are causes by viruses?

A

HIV/AIDS, influenza (animals), tobacco mosaic virus (plants)

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8
Q

What diseases are caused by fungi?

A

Black sigatoka (bananas), athletes foot, ringworm (cattle)

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9
Q

What diseases are caused by protoctista?

A

Malaria, potato/tomato late blight

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10
Q

What is direct transmission?

A

Passing a pathogen from host to new host, with no intermediary.

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11
Q

What is indirect transmission?

A

passing a pathogen from a host to a new host via a vector

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12
Q

What is transmission?

A

Passing a pathogen from an infected to uninfected individual

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13
Q

What is a vector?

A

An organism that carries a pathogen from one host to another.

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14
Q

What social factors affect transmission?

A
  • Overcrowding
  • Poor ventilation
  • Poor health
  • Poor diet
  • Homelessness
  • Being around people who have migrated from an area where a disease is more common.
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15
Q

What diseases are transmitted through direct physical contact?

A

HIV, bacterial meningitis, ringworm, athletes foot

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16
Q

What diseases spread through faecal-oral transmission?

A

Cholera, food poisoning

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17
Q

Which diseases are spread through droplet infection?

A

TB, influenza

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18
Q

Which diseases are transmitted by spores?

A

anthrax, tetanus

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19
Q

Where does plasmodium go after an infected person is bitten?

A

Their liver, then blood.

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20
Q

How do pathogens infect plants?

A
  • Enter roots through soil (especially if damaged)

- Spores in airbourne transmission

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21
Q

How do plant pathogens spread?

A

Enter leaves which fall off or go into fruit and seeds so that all new plants will also be infected.

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22
Q

How does indirect transmission occur in plants?

A

Result of insect attack, transmit to other plants.

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23
Q

What is callose?

A

a large polysaccharide deposit that blocks old phloem sieve tubes at the end of growing season when not in use

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24
Q

What physical defences do plants have?

A
  • Cellulose cell wall
  • Lignin thickening of cell walls
  • Waxy cuticles
  • Bark
  • Stomatal closure
  • Callose
  • Tylose formation
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25
Q

What are plant’s active defences?

A
  • Additional cellulose
  • Callose (often blocks plasmodesmata)
  • An increase in chemical production
  • Oxidative bursts that produce highly reactive oxygen molecules capable of damaging pathogens
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26
Q

What chemicals do plants use?

A

Terpenoids, phenols, alkaloids, defensins, hydrolytic enzymes

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27
Q

What is necrosis?

A

Deliberate cell suicide

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28
Q

What is a canker?

A

A sunken necrotic lesion

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29
Q

What is inflammation?

A

swelling and redness of tissue causes by infection.

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30
Q

What is mucous membrane?

A

specialised epithelial tissue that is covered by mucus

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31
Q

What are primary defences?

A

Ones that prevent pathogens from entering the body

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32
Q

How is the skin a good primary defence?

A

Has cells called keratinocytes that migrate outwards out of the epidermis. As they migrate, they dry out and the cytoplasm is replaced by keratin

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33
Q

How is blood clotting an effective primary defence?

A

Relies on clotting factors which are realised from platelets and the damaged tissue. They activate an enzyme cascade.

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34
Q

How are mucous membrane an effective primary defense?

A

Goblet cells make mucus. Traps pathogens. Ciliated cells sweep up the trachea, the swallowed to digestive system. Acid in stomach kills.

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35
Q

What are other primary defences?

A

Coughing, sneezing, tear fluid,ear canal, mucus plug in cervix

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36
Q

Why is inflammation an active primary defences?

A

mast cells detect pathogens and release histamine. cause vasodilation, more permeable blood. excess tissue fluid is drained into lymphatic system.

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37
Q

Describe neutrophils

A

Multilobed nucleus
A lot of lysosomes
Dead neutophils=pun

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38
Q

Describe macrophages

A

Travel in blood as monocytes
Do not fully digest
Antigen moved to special protein complex

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39
Q

How do you look at blood through smears?

A 
Stained
Red blood cells pink
Monocytes have kidney shaped nucleus 
Neutophils multilobed
Lymphocytes nucleus almost fills as cell
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40
Q

Define antibodies

A

Specific proteins released by plasma membranes that can attach to pathogenic antigens

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41
Q

Define B memory cells

A

Cells that remain in the blood for a long time, providing long term immunity

42
Q

Define clonal expansion

A

An increase in the number of cells by mitotic cell division

43
Q

Define interleukins

A

Signalling molecules that are used to communicate between different white blood cells

44
Q

Define plasma cells

A

Derived from B lymphocytes, manufacture antibodies

45
Q

Define T helper cells

A

Cells that release signalling molecules to stimulate the immune response

46
Q

Define T killer cells

A

Cells that attack and destroy our own body cells that are infected by a pathogen

47
Q

Define T memory cells

A

Cells that remain in the blood for a long time, providing long term immunity

48
Q

Define T regulator cells

A

Cells that are involved with inhibiting or ending the immune response

49
Q

Different between T memory and B memory

A 
T= cellular response
B= antibody response
50
Q

How do cells in the blood signal each other?

A

Cytokines

51
Q

Examples of communication using cytokines

A

Macrophages release monokines which attract neutophils or cause B cells to differntiate
T cells and macrophages release interleukins
Interferon which inhibits virus replication

52
Q

When do autoimmune disease arise?

A

Antibodies start to attack our own antigens

53
Q

Examples of autoimmune diseases

A

Arthritis

Lupus

54
Q

Vector for malarial parasite

A

Female Anopheles

55
Q

Malarial parasite

A

Plasmodium

56
Q

Name of cell in which malarial parasite reproduces

A

Hepatocyte/ liver cell

Erythrocytes

57
Q

Things missed on B lymphocytes question

A

Humoral response - carries antigen on surface specific to antigen

Clonal selection - activation of appropriate B cell by antigen presenting cells

Clonal expansion - cell divided by mitosis

58
Q

Biological reasons no effective vaccines against malaria

A

Different strains
Different antigens
Due to mutation

More than one stage in the life cycle

Different vaccine for each stage

Hidden in cells

Only exposed for a short time

59
Q

Describe briefly the sequence of events that result in the destruction of a bacterium

A 
Receptor site
Formation of phagosome
Lysosomes fuse with phagosome
Bacteria broken down
Absorbed into cytoplasm
60
Q

How is an antibody related to its function?

A 
Y shaped 
Constant region binds to phagocytes
Variable region complementary to antigen 
More than one variable region
Allows agglutination 
Hinge region
Light and heavy four polypeptide
Disulfide bridges
61
Q

Ultra structure of neutrophil

A 
Many lysosomes 
Exoskeleton 
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Golgi
Receptors on membrane
62
Q

Factors that increase chance of TB

A 
No vaccinated 
Poor diet
Homelessness
Poor ventilation
Overcrowding
People visiting where tb is common
Contact with people with tb
63
Q

Role of memory cells

A

Recognise pathogen
Produce clone
Form plasma and T cells
Responsible for secondary response

64
Q

Organism that causes TB

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis or

Mycobacterium bovis

65
Q

Organism that causes malaria

A

Plasmodium falciparum

66
Q

What does myco mean

A

Fungus

67
Q

What does meningitis affect?

A

meninges (membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord) may become swollen

68
Q

What does ring rot do?

A

decay vascular tissue

69
Q

Life cycle of plasmodium

A
  • plasmodium gametes taken up by female Anopheles mosquito
  • develops and goes to salivary glands
  • transferred to uninfected person
  • goes to liver
  • goes to blood and releases gametes
70
Q

What mnemonic for plant passive defences?

A

LOST COW BACK

71
Q

What does LST CW BC

A 
Lignin thickening cell walls
Stomatal closure
Tylose formation 
Cell wall 
Waxy cuticle
Bark
Callose
72
Q

What is tylose?

A

Balloon-like swelling that blocks xylem vessels

73
Q

Where are terpenoids found and how do they work?

A

In tyloses

oils with antibacterial and antifungal properties

74
Q

Where are tannins found?

A

Bark

75
Q

What are tannins an example of?

A

Phenols

76
Q

How do tannins work?

A

stop insect attacks
bind to enzymes in insect saliva and digestive system
deactivate them
can be lethal and limits transmittion

77
Q

What passive defences are fortified in active defence?

A

Cell walls thickened
Callose (in phloem and blocks plasmodesmata and between cell wall and membrane)
Necrosis

78
Q

Examples of alkaloids

A

caffeine
nicotine
morphine
cocaine

79
Q

What do alkaloids do?

A
  • give plant bitter taste
  • some inhibit enzymes
  • limits grazing
80
Q

What are defensins?

A

Small cysteine rich proteins with antimicrobial properties

81
Q

What do hydrolytic enzymes do in plants?

A
  • found between cells

- break down bad things

82
Q

4 steps of tissue repair

A
  • collagen under where needs
  • stem cells divide and migrate
  • new blood vessels form
  • scab released
83
Q

What cells release histamine?

A

mast cells

84
Q

What do histamines do?

A
  • increase leakiness of cells
  • white blood cells can enter infected tissue
  • increase vasodilation
85
Q

Describe the events of phagocytosis

A
  • phagocyte recognise bad antigen
  • phagocytes membrane = endocytosis = phagosome
  • phagosome + lysosome = phagolysosome
  • hydrolytic enzymes break down
  • resulting products used by phagocyte to build other molecules
86
Q

Three ways antigens can be presented

A
  • macrophage
  • infected cell
  • pathogen in body fluid
87
Q

What kickstarts the specific immune response and where?

A

antigen presenting cells

lymph nodes

88
Q

What signalling molecule do macrophages use?

A

Monokines, which:

  • attract neutrophils
  • stimulate B cells to relase antibodies
89
Q

What are interleukins and what do they do?

A

signalling molecules released by T cells and macrophages to stimulate clonal expansion and B and T cell differentiation

90
Q

What does interferon do?

A

inhibits virus replication and stimulates T killer cells

91
Q

Examples of autoimmune disease

A
  • arthritis

- lupus

92
Q

How are plasma cell specialised?

A
  • numerous ribosomes
  • a lot of RER
  • a lot of golgi
  • numerous mitochondria
93
Q

Why is it good that antibodies have a hinge region?

A

so they are flexible for agglutination

94
Q

Example of artificial passive immunity

A

injection of antibodies made by another individual (hepatitis A and B, tetanus)

95
Q

Where are aspirin and iboprofen derived from?

A

The bark of a willow tree

96
Q

Sources of medicines

A
  • accidental discovery
  • traditional remedies
  • observing wildlife
97
Q

Examples of how observation of wildlife can help us make medicine

A
  • monkeys and bears rub citrus oil on their coats as insecticides and antiseptics
  • birds line nests with medicinal leaves to prevent bites from mites
98
Q

What are most antibiotics derived from?

A

bacteria from the genus Streptomyces

99
Q

Examples of bacterial resistance to antibiotics

A

Clostridium difficile and MRSA

100
Q

What methods of pathogen transmission apply to plants?

A

direct contact

vectors

Biology AS Rafa (13 decks)

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