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Biology AS Rafa > 2.6 Cell Division, Cell Diversity And Cell Differentiation > Flashcards

2.6 Cell Division, Cell Diversity And Cell Differentiation Flashcards

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1
Q

What happens at prophase?

A
  • chromosomes condense (DNA SUPERCOILING)
  • centriole divides and new centrioles move to poles
  • spindle forms
  • nuclear envelope breaks down
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2
Q

What happens at metaphase?

A

-chromosomes line up and get attached to spindle by centromere

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3
Q

What happens at anaphase?

A

chromatids separate, pulled by centromeres first

motor proteins pull

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4
Q

What happens at telophase?

A
  • reach the opposite poles on the spindle
  • uncoil
  • nuclear envelope forms
  • Cell has 2 nuclei
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5
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

When the cytoplasm divides.

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6
Q

What happens at G0 phase?

A

Cells undergo apoptosis, differentiation or senescence

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7
Q

What happens in the G1 phase?

A
  • cell grows and organelles duplicate

- transcription of genes to make RNA

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8
Q

What happens at the S phase?

A

-every molecule of DNA is replicated

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9
Q

What happens at G2 phase?

A
  • special chemicals ensure the cell is ready for mitosis

- cells grow

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10
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

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11
Q

What is senescence?

A

Where cells can no longer divide.

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12
Q

Where are the two main checkpoints?

A

G1/S

G2/M

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13
Q

Which checkpoint is called the restriction point?

A

G1/S checkpoint.

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14
Q

What are the purposes of checkpoints?

A
  • prevent uncontrolled divisions

- repair damaged DNA

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15
Q

What do the molecular evens that control the cell cycle ensure?

A
  • the cycle cannot be reversed

- the DNA is only duplicated once during each cell cycle

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16
Q

Why is the p53 gene important?

A

It triggers the two main checkpoints in the regulation of the cycle.

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17
Q

Define interphase

A

Phase of cell cycle where the cell is not dividing; it is subdivided into growth and synthesis phases.

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18
Q

Define mitosis

A

Type of nuclear division that produces daughter cells genetically identical to each other and the parent cell.

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19
Q

How to protoctists multiply?

A

Asexual reproduction.

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20
Q

Why is mitosis important?

A
  • asexual reproduction
  • growth
  • tissue repair
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21
Q

What is the mnemonic for mitosis?

A

PMAT

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22
Q

How does cytokinesis happen in plants?

A
  • End plate forms where equator of the spindle was

- a new plasma membrane and cell wall are laid down

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23
Q

How does cytokinesis happen in animals?

A

Plasma membrane folds and nips in

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24
Q

Define chromatids.

A

Replicates of chromosomes.

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25
Q

Define haploid.

A

Having only one set of chromosomes; represented by the symbol n.

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26
Q

Define homologous chromosomes.

A

Matching chromosomes, containing the same genes in the same places (loci) but might contain different alleles of the same gene.

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27
Q

Define meiosis.

A

Type of nuclear division that results in the formation of cells containing half the number of chromosomes from the parent cell.

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28
Q

How does meiosis produce genetic variation?

A

-crossing over during prophase 1 shuffles alleles.

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29
Q

Define differentiation.

A

Process by which stem cells become specialised into different types of cell.

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30
Q

What are epithelial cells?

A

Cells that constitute lining tissue.

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31
Q

What is another name for a red blood cell?

A

Erythrocyte

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32
Q

Another name for a phagocytic white blood cell?

A

Neutrophil

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33
Q

Define stem cell

A

Unspecialised cell able to express all of its genes and divide by mitosis.

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34
Q

How are erythrocytes specialised?

A

Very small, 7.5 micrometers, so large SA/V ratio for oxygen diffusion
Biconcave shape
Flexible
No nucleus

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35
Q

How are neutrophils specialised?

A
  • twice the size of erythrocytes and have a multilobed nucleus.
  • travel by chemotaxis
  • phagocytosis
  • flexible shape
  • many lysosomes
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36
Q

How are spermatozoa specialised?

A
  • many mitochondria
  • long and thin
  • releases enzymes from acrosome digests outer protective covering
  • flagellum so they can swim
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37
Q

What are guard cells and how are they specialised?

A

Found in pairs with a gap to form stoma

  • In the light, they take up water and become turgid
  • they have thin outer walls and thick inner walls that make them bend outwards and open stomata
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38
Q

What are root hair cells and how are they specialised?

A

Epidermal cells of roots with long projections

  • large SA
  • thin, permeable cell wall
  • extra mitochondria
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39
Q

How are palisade cells specialised?

A

Pack together closely with space between for air to circulate
Large vacuole
Chloroplasts
Cytoskeleton threads and motor proteins to move chloroplasts
Thin walls

40
Q

Define tissue.

A

A group of cells that work together to perform a specific function/set of functions.

41
Q

What are the five main types of animal tissue?

A
  • Squamous epithelium
  • Ciliated epithelium
  • Muscle
  • Cartilage
  • Nervous
42
Q

Difference between microvilli and cilia?

A
  • microvilli are extensions of the plasma membrane from surface area
  • cilia of organelles for receptions and moving
43
Q

What is connective tissue made from?

A

Proteins (collagen and elastin) and polysaccharides (such as hyaluronic acid) and cells

44
Q

What are immature cells in cartilage called?

A

Chrondoblasts

45
Q

What are mature cells in cartilage called?

A

Chondrocytes

46
Q

What are the three types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline
Fibrous
Elastic

47
Q

What does vascularised mean?

A

Has many blood vessels.

48
Q

What allows muscle tissue to contract?

A

Muscles cells are called fibres and contain special organs called myofilaments made of the proteins actin and myosin.

49
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

A
  • skeletal muscles cause bones to move
  • cardiac muscle for heart
  • smooth muscle in intestine, blood vessels, uterus, etc
50
Q

Define meristem.

A

Area of unspecialised cells within a plant that can divide and differentiate into other cell types

51
Q

Define organ.

A

Collection of tissues working together to perform a function / set of functions.

52
Q

Define phloem

A

Tissue that carries products of photosynthesis in solution within plants.

53
Q

Define xylem

A

Tissue that carries water and mineral ions from the roots to all other parts of plant.

54
Q

What type of tissue are the xylem and phloem?

A

Vascular tissue

55
Q

How are stems in meristems specialised?

A

Thin walls with little cellulose
No chloroplasts
No large vacuole
Can differentiate by mitosis

56
Q

How do cambium cells differentiate into xylem vessles?

A

Lignin is deposited in cell walls to reinforce but this kills cells
Ends of the cells break down so that the xylem forms continuous columns with wide lumens

57
Q

What organ system contains the skin hair and nails?

A

Integumentary system for waterproofing, protection and temperature regulation.

58
Q

What organ system makes hormones?

A

endocrine system

59
Q

What organ system contains lymph nodes and vessels?

A

Lymph system.

60
Q

What are four sources of stem cells?

A
  • embryonic
  • umbilical cord blood
  • adult stem cells
  • induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS)
61
Q

What happens in prophase 1 of meiosis?

A

Nuclear envelope breaks down
Chromosomes condense
Chromosomes come together in homologous pairs
Crossing over alleles shuffled

62
Q

What happens at interphase?

A

DNA replicated
Organelles replicated
ATP content increased

63
Q

When does cytokinesis begin and end?

A

Begins in anaphase

Ends in telophase

64
Q

Significance of mitosis in life cycles

A
  • growth
  • tissue repair
  • asexual reproduction in plants, animals and fungi
65
Q

Significance of meiosis in life cycles

A
  • production of haploid cells

- genetic variation by independent assortment and crossing over

66
Q

When are chromatids crossed over?

A

Prophase 1

67
Q

How are different epithelial cells specialised?

A
  • Ciliated epithelial cells have cilia to move particles

- Squamous epithelial cells are very thin to allow efficient diffusion of gasses

68
Q

What type of cells does xylem have?

A

hollow, dead xylem vessel cells and living parenchyma cells

69
Q

Where are erythrocytes and neutrophils derived from?

A

stem cells in bone marrow

70
Q

Potential uses of stem cells in research and medicine?

A
  • repair of damaged tissues
  • treatment of neurological conditions such as Alzheimers and Parkinsons
  • research into developmental biology
71
Q

Why does the genetic material get copied?

A
  • so cells are genetically identical

- so both daughter cells have a full copy of DNA

72
Q

Features of homologous chromosomes

A
  • one maternal one paternal
  • same genes usually
  • same/different alleles
  • centromere in same position
  • same banding pattern
  • pair up in meiosis
73
Q

Function of squamous epithelium

A

acts as a surface

short diffusion pathway

74
Q

Example of squamous epithelium

A

alveoli
cheek lining
blood vessels

75
Q

Function of ciliated epithelium

A

Move mucus

76
Q

Example of ciliated epithelium

A

bronchioles
bronchi
trachea

77
Q

Where can meristem tissue be found?

A

apex of root
apex of shoot
cambium
bud

78
Q

How is cell division different in plant cells than animal cells?

A
  • cell wall forms
  • cytokinesis starts from middle of cell
  • only occurs in meristem
  • no centrioles
79
Q

What happens at G2/M checkpoint?

A
  • chemicals stimulate spindle formation

- trigger condensation of chromatin

80
Q

What happens at G1/S checkpoint?

A

restriction point
ensures cell is ready to enter S phase
some cell enter G0

81
Q

What is a centrosome?

A

The system set up in cell division by the centrioles

82
Q

Order of cells in plants

A 
cuticle
upper epidermis
palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll
lower epidermis
cuticle
83
Q

Main plant organs

A

flowers-reproduction
leaves - photosynthesis
stem - support + transport
roots - anchor + storage + absorption

84
Q

Do sperm have flagellum or undulipodium?

A

undulipodium

85
Q

What does epithelial tissue do?

A

-lines surfaces
-cells close in contact (desmosomes)
-short cell cycles
secretion
absorption
filtration
protection
excretion

86
Q

Function of connective tissue

A

separates living cells within tissues and enables them to withstand forces

  • blood
  • cartilage
  • ligaments bones tendons skin
87
Q

What do chondroblasts do?

A

mitosis and secrete extracellular matrix

88
Q

What do chondrocytes do?

A

maintain extra cellular matrix

89
Q

What does hyaline cartilage do?

A

embryonic skeleton
ends long adult bones
ribs to sternum, nose etc

90
Q

What does fibrous cartilage do?

A

-discs in spine and knee

91
Q

What does elastic cartilage do?

A

outer ear

epiglottis windpipe flap

92
Q

Which cells are totipotent?

A

zygote (any cell)

93
Q

Which cells are pluripotent?

A

embryo (almost any cell or any cell of the organism)

94
Q

Which cells are multipotent?

A

adults (go to limited number of specialised cells)

95
Q

Which cells are unipotent?

A

adults (can only diff. into one type of cell)

96
Q

Uses of stem cells

A
  • Bone marrow transplants (blood diseases, cancer, immune system diseases)
  • Drug research
  • Developmental biology
  • Repair of damaged tissues or replace host tissues
  • Regenerative medicine

Biology AS Rafa (13 decks)

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