3- Reinforcement arrangements and applied to settings 1: selecting reinforcers and contingencies

Question 1

Simplest
arrangement; deliver a discrete consequence for each discrete response
 Not common

Answer 1

Continuous reinforcement:

Question 2

: Reinforcement only sometimes follows the target response

-more common

Answer 2

Intermittent reinforcement

Question 3

Reinforcement is provided for the first response that follows some amount of time
Two types:

Fixed interval

Variable interval

Answer 3

Interval schedules:

Question 4

Reinforcer delivered contingent on first response after some constant time period has elapsed

Answer 4

Fixed-interval (FI):

Question 5

Similarly arrange reinforcers contingent on the first response after a specified time, but the time varies from one reinforcer to the next

Answer 5

Variable-interval (VI):

Question 6

Arranges reinforcers for the last of a number of responses that varies from one reinforcer to the next.

Answer 6

Variable ratio

Question 7

Reinforcement is provided following a pre-specified number of responses

There are two varieties of ratio schedules:

• Fixed Ratio FR

_Variable Ratio VR

Answer 7

Ratio schedules

Question 8

Deliver reinforcer after the last of a fixed number of responses

Answer 8

 Fixed ratio (FR

Question 9

Deliver stimuli known in other contexts to be reinforcers solely on the basis of time, independent of responding

In a Fixed time schedule that Reinforcer is delivered after some constant time period has elapsed

A Variable time (VT) Similarly arranges reinforcers after a specified time, but the time varies from one reinforcer to the next

Answer 9

Response-independent time-based) schedule

Question 10

Of low rate (DRL)t s without response, then 1 response

Of High Rate (DRH) 1 response within t s or less of last response

Of other behavior (DRO) t s without a response

Of alternative behavior (DRA) Contingent on alternative response, often in absence of target response

Answer 10

Some other basic Schedules

Question 11

When a reinforcer follows a response, it’s effect depends on its relation not only to that response but also to other responses preceding it

All are followed by the reinforcer even
though only the last response produced it

 E.g., if an error is immediately followed by
a reinforced correct response in an
instructional procedure, that reinforcer will
probably strengthen the error along with
the correct response, at least temporarily

Answer 11

Delay Contingncies

Question 12

Response classes one wishes to
strengthen may vary in terms of how
well established they are.

From Not at all established to fully established but unmotivated

Answer 12

Selecting responses

Question 13

Task materials and relevant instructions do not occasion predetermined level of performance in absence of prompts

Answer 13

Skill deficit

Question 14

: The skill is intact, but the person is unmotivated to respond under appropriate stimulus conditions

can be accurately distinguished from skill deficits on basis of whether supplemental reinforcement for correct responding rapidly increases accuracy

Answer 14

Performance (or motivational deficit)

Question 15

 If reinforcement contingency very rapidly eliminates a performance deficit, the skill must already have been learned

 Skills deficits, on the other hand, may
require different interventions depending
on the learner’s abilities and whether some of the skill has already been learned

Answer 15

Performance or Skill Deficit?

Question 16

Some property of responding is gradually changed by differentially reinforcing successive approximations to target behavior

Extinction increases RESPONSE Variability (Some behavior must be already occurring )

Frequent reinforcer delivery can result in satiation and may strengthen early responses

Infrequent delivery may decrease or extinguish responding

Answer 16

Shaping

Question 17

May aide in Shaping

Used as a systematic way to decide which approximations to reinforce and how often

Specifies changes in reinforcement CRITERIA (e.g., based on latency, effort, location or duration) as behavior moves toward the shaping target

To be reinforced, the next response must fall
into some PORTION of the sampled distribution
(e.g., above the 70th percentile)

The reinforcement criterion changes as progress is made toward the target

Lag Schedule is an example

Answer 17

Percentile Schedules

Question 18

Use;

Extinction induced variation

Lag- reinforcement schedules
- A Type of percentile schedule
Lag = number of responses separating the current response from an earlier one like it

 In a lag x reinforcement schedule, the
current response is reinforced if it differs
from the last x preceding responses along
the specified dimension from an earlier one like it

Ex, Shows an increased Variety of block building structures
Some additional training sometimes required.

Answer 18

To increase response diversity

Question 19

Often used when a skill DEFICIT present

Multiple types of Prompting  strategies
   least to most
   Verbal
   Gestural
   Physical guidance
   May include allowing some time for independent responding.

When prompting us required, question where in the sequence to deliver reinforcer
• Reinforcing only unprompted correct Responses may lead to INFREQUENT…., Reinforcers
•Reinforcing physically guided responses: Risk strengthening behavior that will not generalize beyond the learning setting

Answer 19

Prompting

Question 20

Research has examined differential reinforcement of prompted and unprompted responding to achieve this goal, using:

• Different reinforcement schedules
• Different quality reinforcers

Answer 20

To Promote INDEPENDENT responding:

Ultimate goal of prompting is too…

Question 21

Video ex;

Three conditions:

CRF/CRF (Independent and prompted, respectively
CRF/FR 3
CRF/EXT

Differential reinforcement: an unprompted response got food and praise while a prompted response got praise only.

Non differential reinforcement: Unprompted and prompted responses both get reinforcers and praise

Answer 21

Least to most prompting (example)

Question 22

May be more RAPIDLY acquired or increase more reliably when Unprompted responses differentially reinforced (no reinforcement for
prompted responses). OR..

…Higher reinforcement rates arranged for
independent than for prompted responses

Answer 22

Independent responding

Question 23

naturally related to the responses that produces

Answer 23

An intrinsic reward

Question 24

Arbitrarily related to the responses that produce it. Example, music is an intrinsic outcome of playing an instrument, the music teachers praise Is extrinsic To the playing.

Answer 24

Extrinsic rewards

Question 25

Reinforcement contingencies (Extrinsic rewards) Lead to decrements enjoyment (Intrinsic rewards) and thus result in decreases in engagement.

Fueled controversy regarding use of reinforcement in educational settings
..”Extrinsic motivators – including A’ S, sometimes praise, and other words are not merely an affective over the long haul but counterproductive with respect to things that concern us most: desire to learn, commitment to good values, and so on
Alfie KOHN, educational leadership

Strongest detrimental effect when tangible given for performance independent delivery

Answer 25

Overjustification hypothesis-

Extrinsic reinforcement and intrinsic reinforcement

Question 26

Meta-Analysis of available research using effect sizes.

Separated effects according to reward type:

 Reward for what (Quality dependent, completion dependent, performance independent
 What sort of reward (Tangible, verbal)

Examined separate affects on ENGAGEMENT (free time) And attitudes towards task

Calculation of effect sizes:
Experimental group mean - control group mean divided by pooled standard deviation

Answer 26

Overjustification study:Eisenberger & Cameron (1996):

Question 27

Interpretation of effect sizes:

EF < 1 EFFECT of the independent variable: (detrimental effects Of reward)

EF > than 1 = no effect of the independent variable (No detrimental effects)

Answer 27

Eisenberger & Cameron (1996): Overjustification

Question 28

SATIATION especially when reinforcers increase task engagement or less and motivation is examined for brief periods immediately after reward period.

Answer 28

(Overjustification ) Effects In IDD

What may account for what appears to be less and intrinsic motivation for people with developmental disabilities?

Question 29

Examined role of concurrently available ALTERNATIVE activities and SATIATION in “Overjustification

General procedures:  (A) Baseline: No programmed consequences  for engagement with target activity

(B) Reinforcement: Piece of preferred food
contingent on 30 s engagement with target activity

(A) Return to baseline: No programmed
consequences for engagement with target activity

Answer 29

Overjustification

 Peters & Vollmer (2014):

Question 30

1. Contrast Effects

2. Learned helplessness

Answer 30

Accounts for intrinsic motivation And learned helplessness phenomenon

Question 31

1. Changes in rate of reinforcement under one condition that can produce an opposite change in rate of responding in another condition.

Answer 31

Contrast affect

Question 32

In performance-independent reward, “It

doesn’t matter how well I do

Answer 32

Learned helplessness phenomena

Over justification effect

Question 33

More pronounced when behavior already occurs at a high level
• We generally do not arrange reinforcement contingencies for behaviors already
occurring at high rates

Reinforcement systems depend on task completion, performance quality, or both…reward procedures not reliably found to reduce intrinsic task interest

 Some effects may be best attributed to satiation, especially when reward does increase engagement in the response and the effects are measured immediately afterwards

 Quality-dependent verbal rewards actually have a positive effect on intrinsic interest

Answer 33

Addressing Overjustification hypothesis

Question 34

Just a prediction

Prediction Conducted under extremely LOW effort requirements, often with simplistic responses

Predictions made under these conditions do not necessarily guarantee the utility of the stimulus in
actual training or treatment

Therefore, the predictions of These should be verified under conditions that more closely parallel actual training contexts such as:
Actual work , Realistic schedules

…Enter, reinforcer assessments…

Answer 34

Stimulus preference assessments

SPAs

Question 35

General experimental arrangements:

 Single-operant arrangement

 Concurrent-schedule arrangement

 Progressive ratio schedule arrangements

 Demand curves

Answer 35

reinforcer assessments

Question 36

most commonly used PA

Single reinforcement schedule is Arranged for a single response

FR schedule

DV = response rate or frequency

Compare to baseline rates

Answer 36

Single-operant arrangement

Question 37

In theory, in this PA, the larger the increase in responding, the more potent the reinforcer

However, response rate may be poor index of relative reinforcer value because variables other than the strength of the reinforcer can impact responding
E.g., “ceiling effects”

mask differences in relative reinforcer efficacy

Answer 37

Single-operant arrangement

Question 38

More sensitive test of relative reinforcer
effectiveness

Multiple response options CONCURRENTLY
available, Each associated with a distinct stimulus
delivered contingent upon appropriate response

DV is relative response allocations across
available alternatives

Often a control condition

Answer 38

Concurrent-Schedule Arrangement

Question 39

Relative versus absolute value:
•may be sensitive to small differences in reinforcer value
•However, just because a reinforcer is less
preferred in This arrangement, it may nonetheless be an effective reinforcer in an absolute sense

• May mask reinforcer effects for lower preference stimuli

Answer 39

Concurrent-Schedule Arrangement

Question 40

Special type of single-operant arrangement
• Differ from typical single-operant arrangements with respect to how the schedule is thinned
-Ratio requirement increases systematically
within a session, across successive “trials”
-Session ends when participant ceases to respond for pre-determined amount of time

Dependent measure, aka, break point,” is the value of the last completed schedule requirement

Provide an estimate of the amount of responding one is willing to emit towards gaining a reinforcer

Stimuli of different preference levels may produce equal results in how fast an individual might work But different results and how much work is done.

Answer 40

Progressive Ratio Schedule Arrangement

Question 41

When all else being equal As unit price increases Demand (consumption) decreases And vice versa

Demand Curve:
Relates to Unit price of the commodity and.,the Total amount of a reinforcer that is consumed
Allow one to look at choices under conditions of asymmetricalEnforcers and under various conditions of constraint.

Answer 41

Law of Demand:

Question 42

Provides an estimate of the amount of responding one is willing to emit towards gaining a reinforcer

Stimuli of different preference levels may
produce equal results in how “fast” an individual might work, but different results in “how much” work is done

Answer 42

break point

Question 43

methods used to identify
stimuli that may function as reinforcers

Prediction:
The Higher the preference of stimuli the more
effective the reinforcers

Two step process:
1. Conduct SPA to determine its predictions
about relative reinforcer efficacy

2. Test those predictions using one of
   the REINFORCER assessment methods just
   described

There are three general categories.. see next card

Answer 43

Stimulus Preference Assessments

Question 44

Three general categories

1. Indirect preference assessment (client or caregiver report)
2. Naturalistic (in-vivo) DIRECT observation
3. Direct preference assessment (free
   operant or approach based)These differ in effort and accuracy

Answer 44

Stimulus Preference Assessments

Question 45

Indirect PA
Advantage- Least effortful
Limitations: subjective, results do Not always correspond to direct PA’s

Naturalistic observation
Advantage: objective, more valid than indirect PA
Limitations: time-consuming, limited to stimuli available and natural environment

Direct PA
Advantage: most accurate, stimuli not limited
Limitations: time-consuming

Answer 45

Preference assessment – effort and accuracy

Question 46

Compare a teacher and stimulus preference assessment ranking
Found a strong positive correlation of 1/9 cases and a negative correlation of 5/9 cases.

Presented HP stimuli contingent upon
occurrence of a response

 Conclude: Direct assessment methods
more accurate in determining reinforcers than
Indirect assessment

Answer 46

Accuracy of Caregiver Rankings

Cote, Thompson

Question 47

During this preference assessment, items are presented systematically to produce preference HIERARCHIES

Variations differ with respect to how many items are presented during a given trial

Preference hierarchies are derived from calculations of the number of times a stimulus is SELECTED given the number of times each is available

Answer 47

Approach or selection-based preference assessments

Identifying Stimulus Preferences

Question 48

Place items, one at a time in front of the person
• Typically, 10 trials per item

Measure whether or not they approach the item

Hierarchy based on: Approaches/trials

Simple, includes large number of stimuli but may be prone to false positives.

Answer 48

Single-Item/Approach Method/AKA single-stimulus assessment

Question 49

Stimuli presented in pairs

Continue to present item in pairs until Each item has been paired once with every other item (all pair-wise permutations)

 Number of trials = n (n-1) / 2,

where n = total number of stimuli included

 E.g., for 5 stimuli, 5 (4) / 2 = 10 trials

Record which of the two items they approach including:!
• Selection = brief access
• Attempts to select both that were blocked

Hierarchy based on:• Approaches/trials

More sensitive To relative preference and also includes a large number of stimuli but is time consuming And there is a potential for a side bias

Answer 49

Paired-stimulus PA (AKA – forced-choice PA)

Question 50

Present all items in the array
Simultaneously

 Participants select one from among 
all items (or remaining items) during 
each trial

Two Variations.
1. With replacement (MSW) –
• Selected items are returned to the array
-Provides info on the single most preferred stimulus

2. Without replacement (MSWO) –
   • Selected items are NOT returned to the array
   -Provides more information about preferences among the array

Brief but may limit the number of items included and it can be prone to save the best for last.

Answer 50

Multiple-Stimulus PAs

Question 51

Reinforcing PHYSICALLY guided responses risks strengthening behavior that will not….

Answer 51

generalize beyond the Learning setting.

Question 52

Used when target responses are
sufficiently complex or of sufficiently low probability that they are unlikely to be emitted without this gradual intervention

Answer 52

Shaping

Question 53

Type of Percentile Schedule

• Lag = number of responses separating the current response from an earlier one like it

In a lag x reinforcement schedule, the
current response is reinforced if it DIFFERS
from the last x preceding responses along
the specified dimension

Ex., Lag 3

Answer 53

Lag Reinforcement Schedule

Question 54

Items are presented to the individual and the proportion of time spent engaging with the items is recorded

Arranged in two ways:

1. For Free operant (or multiple item) Cesc meant all items are presented SIMULTANEOUSLY
2. In Single item presentation each item is presented INDIVIDUALLY Several times.

Answer 54

Duration based preference assessment

Question 55

Variation of duration based assessment

Used to determine the extent to which stimuli displace problem behavior.

Two measures are taken simultaneously:

1. Stimulus engagement
2. Problem behavior

Stimuli selected based on combined it measures

Answer 55

Competing stimulus preference assessment.

Question 56

Use vocal or pictorial presentations:

Vocal assessments: ask what they want

Pictorial assessments – when you present pictures of stimuli

Answer 56

Use for Inclusion of the complex stimuli not easily presented on table top such as community activities, bike rides or swimming

Question 57

Variables to consider:
Abilities
Position bias
Problem behavior

Require different skills to make Valid selections. important to consider Pre-requisite skills specific to each type of assessment In relation to participants current skills with selecting a method

Answer 57

Selecting a preference assessment

Question 58

Single stimulus - Approach response

Paired stimulus – approach response, visual scanning, possible position bias

Multiple stimulus – approach response, visual scanning, possible position bias

Duration – approach response

Pictorial SPA - Auditory match to sample

Answer 58

Prerequisite skills to consider when selecting a preference assessment method

Question 59

Individuals with profound disabilities who do not possess prerequisite scanning and motor skills for approach response cannot participate in traditional SPAs

Other options

- Microswitches ) 
- Indices of happiness

Answer 59

SPA

Question 60

Trained individuals to email small motor movements e.g.. Lifting head, to assess stimuli

Attached to body parts then measured number and duration of motor movements.

Answer 60

Microswitch

Question 61

Identified high preference and low preference items in SS SPA

presented for 1 to 3 minutes, 2 times per session and measured indices of Happiness and unhappiness

Answer 61

INDICES of happiness and unhappiness

Question 62

Selection is controlled by location rather than by the items themselves

Participants I always select the item on the left went to items are presented in the paired stimulus S PA.

Eliminating can be difficult but has proven successful in some cases

Answer 62

Position Bias

Question 63

Bourret, Iwata Look up position biases for three individuals

• QUALITY training- Gave participants a choice between known non-preferred stimulus and preferred stimulus used in original SPA.
  
  • Worked for us some not all.

• MAGNITUDE Training with error correction. ——Magnitude of one option was five times greater than the other

Error correction: selection of smaller magnitude resulted in five re-presentations of the trial, selection of small option was blocked

Answer 63

Eliminating position biases

Question 64

Changing to VERTICAL placement of stimuli, holding stimuli directly in front of participant and placing items in opposite corners of Room and having participant walk to selected item.

If position Biases persist, it may be necessary to assess preferences using the SS or DURATION base procedures

Answer 64

Other possible methods to eliminate position bias

Question 65

Can be distinguished from skill deficits on basis of weather supplemental reinforcement for correct responding rapidly increase accuracy

Answer 65

Performance deficit

Question 66

Requires experience

-Some behavior is already occurring

• Frequent reinforcer delivery can result in satiation and may strengthen early responses
• Infrequent delivery may decrease or extinguish responding

Answer 66

Shaping

Question 67

Reinforcer assessment in which the reinforcer. efficacy of a single item is tested by comparing levels. of a response when it is delivered as a consequence. to levels observed during baseline (no consequence)

Single Stimulus Preference Assessments, also known as “successive choice” assessments, are conducted by providing a single item to a child, and recording his behavioral response to each item, as well as the duration of his engagement with each item. Although Single Stimulus Preference Assessments may not be as accurate at determining preferences as MSWOs, MSWs, and Paired Stimulus Preference Assessments, these are appropriate for children who are unable to select between highly-preferred and low-preferred items. For example, if you conduct a Paired Stimulus Preference Assessment and noticed that the child always selects items from one side (i.e., side bias) or always attempts to take both presented items, a Single Stimulus Preference Assessment should be used instead.

Answer 67

Single-operant arrangement

Question 68

Identified preferences w/ paired-stimulus assessment
 Compared “accuracy” (how often known
preferred food chosen in 2-choice trials)
under 3 conditions
1. Object: Presented actual items
2. Spoken: “Do you want X or Y”
3. Picture: Presented pictures of the items
 Examined correspondence of accuracy as a
function of abilities on the Assessment of
Basic Learning Abilities (AB

Conclude: Verbal and pictorial SPAs can be
accurate, but reserve them for individuals
with established discrimination abilities

Answer 68

Conyers et al. (2002):

Question 68

 Time
 Function of problem behavior
 Can stimulus be delivered after
selection

Answer 68

Other considerations when selecting

an SPA method

Question 69

f, FO, SS, or MSWO may 
be more appropriate than PS assessment
 MSWO proposed as assessment that 
required less time to implement than a 
PS assessment
• DeLeon and Iwata (1996): PS and MSWO 
methods generated similar preference 
hierarchies, but MSWO assessment required 
fewer trials and completed in approximately 
half the time 

But, fewer stimuli can be assessed 
with MSWO, therefore:
 SS if one wishes to include a large
number of stimuli 
 PS if one has ample time to 
complete assessment

Answer 69

time is of issue

Question 70

may impact
choice of SPA method
 Kang et al. (2011): Analysis of interaction
between problem behavior maintained by
different reinforcers and different types of
SPAs
 Children with problem behavior sensitive to
tangible, attention, and escape
 Conducted 3 forms of preference
assessments (PS, MSWO, Free Operant)
 Examine which forms interact with which
functions

Conclusion
 PS and MSWO evoke problem 
behavior maintained by tangible
reinforcers
• FO does not
 FO evoked problem behavior 
maintained by attention
• PS and MSWO do no

Answer 70

Function of problem behavior

Question 71

 Selection responses typically result in the opportunity for a participant to
consume the chosen item

 Under some circumstances, it may not
be practical to deliver an item
immediately following a selection
response (e.g., community activity)

 Can this impact accuracy?

Hanley, Iwata, & Lindberg (1999):
 Evaluated preferences using pictures
 During each assessment trial, three pictures
were presented simultaneously to participants
 Two potential reinforcers and presumably neutral
activity
 Two experimental conditions:
 No access: Selection did not produce
programmed consequences
 Access: Selection resulted in 2 min access

In most cases, differentiated preference hierarchies
established only when selected items were
immediately delivered following selection

Answer 71

Considerations: Contingent

Delivery

Question 72

Kuhn, DeLeon, Terlonge, & Goysovich
(2006):
 Evaluated preferences using verbal SPA
 Two experimental conditions
1. Verbal: “Would you rather have X or Y?”;
selection did not produce programmed
consequences
2. Verbal-plus-Tangible: Experimenter
presented two stimuli and asked, “Would
you rather have X or Y?”; selection resulted
in 30 s access
 Followed by concurrent-schedule reinforcer
assessment
Different preference hierarchies generated
for all participants
 During reinforcer assessments: Items ranked
high in the verbal-plus-tangible assessment
functioned as more effective reinforcers than
items ranked as highly preferred on verbal-
only assessments
 Providing item does matter
 Contingent delivery identifies stimuli more
likely to function as reinforcers

Answer 72

Contingent Delivery

Question 73

 What type of stimuli do you include in a preference assessment?
 How do you pick which exact stimuli to
include?
 Does it matter if you mix up all kinds of
items in the same assessment?
 Can you use praise with children with
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)? How
do you even assess social stimuli?

Answer 73

Considerations: Reinforcer

Selection

Question 74

 Is it easily replenished?
 Does it cost much?
 Does it fit naturally in the environment in
which it will be used?
 Can its use cause other sorts of detrimental
effects?
 Does its effectiveness wane easily across
short periods of time?
 Does its delivery disrupt ongoing behavior?

Answer 74

Ecological Fit of Reinforcers

Question 75

 Although indirect SPAs may not be all that accurate when used alone, some
advocate for their use in helping to
construct a stimulus array for direct
SPAs
 Fisher et al. (1996):
 Caregivers ranked standard list of items
 Caregivers then completed RAISD and
rank ordered items from the RAISD
 Paired-stimulus SPA then conducted
 Results compared across 3 assessments
Fisher et al. (1996), results:
 Top-ranked items identified by caregiver
predictions based upon RAISD more
preferred than the top-ranked items
identified by predictions based upon a
standard list of items
 Thus, while caregiver reports may not
consistently identify the most preferred
items, they may play an important role in
constructing a stimulus pool that includes
the most effective reinforcers

Answer 75

Selecting Stimuli for Inclusion

Question 76

 What happens if you include different 
types of stimuli in the same SPA?
 DeLeon, Iwata, & Roscoe (1997):
 Conducted preference assessments with 
mixed (food and leisure items) arrays
 Repeated preference assessments, minus 
the food items
 Assessed whether initially LP activities 
functioned as reinforcers

Conclude
 Food items often downward displace 
leisure items in mixed arrays
 But those leisure items might be 
effective reinforcers nonetheless —
assess separately!

Answer 76

SPA: Mixed Arrays

Question 77

Arguments in favor of praise/social 
reinforcers
 Natural in the classroom
 Does not interrupt responding
 No cost other than caregiver effort
 Takes little time 
 May be less subject to satiation
 Behaviors developed using social 
reinforcers may be more easily maintained
in generalization settings
 May increase task interest

However,
 Praise not effective for all
• Hence, it is important to assess as we do 
with other reinforcers
 Social reinforcers may be difficult in 
incorporate into preference assessment
• May require use of pictorial SPA
 Children with ASD less sensitive to 
social stimuli as reinforcers?

Answer 77

SPA: Praise and

Other Social Stimuli

Question 78

Preference for social stimuli among
persons with ASD
 Somewhat mixed results
 Celani (2002): Preference for contexts
devoid of social interaction
 Call, Shillingsburg, Bowen, Reavis, &
Findley (2013): Children with ASD may
exhibit indifference towards various types
of social interactions

Goldberg, Allman, Hagopian, Triggs,
Frank-Crawford, Mostofsky, Denkcla, &
DeLeon (in preparation)
 Children with and without ASD
 Identified two groups of stimuli
• Social stimuli: Activities completed with mom
• Nonsocial stimuli: Activities completed by self
 Then conducted pictorial SPA and PR
assessments with social and nonsocial
stimuli
Photos taken of participant engaging in activity
with mom (social stimuli only) or activity alone
(nonsocial stimuli only

Dangerous to assume that children 
with ASD will not find social 
interactions reinforcing
As in all cases of determining 
reinforcer effectiveness, there are 
great differences across individuals

Answer 78

Social Reinforcers and ASD

Question 79

 Social reinforcers often difficult to 
include in preference assessments
 Smaby, McDonald, Ahearn, & Dube
(2007):
 Conducted brief reinforcer assessments 
for social stimuli
 Rapid alternation
 Social consequence vs. extinction
 Eliminates difficulty of incorporating social 
stimuli in preference assessment

Answer 79

Assessing Social Stimuli

Question 80

Dozier, Iwata, Thomason-Sassi, Worsdell, Wilson (2012):
 Compared two pairing procedures
• Noncontingent pairing: Primary reinforcers
delivered freely and attention is consistently
provided during consumption
• Contingent pairing: Primary reinforcers and
attention simultaneously provided
contingent on the completion of a task
 Following either pairing procedure, the
effectiveness of attention in the absence
of food is measured through task
completion

Noncontingent pairing ineffective

Contingent pairing more effective, but only in
about half of cases

Answer 80

Establishing Social Stimuli as

Reinforcers

Question 81

1. If the individual has the requisite visual
   scanning and motor skills, PS
   assessment should be used if time
   permits, MSWO if time is limited.
2. If motor skills are intact but the individual
   cannot visually scan an array of stimuli,
   the SS assessment may be most
   appropriate.
3. For individuals with side biases, the SS or
   FO assessments should be considered if
   training to overcome the side bias proves
   ineffective.
4. For persons who lack the ability to visually
   scan an array and who have limited motor
   control, the use of technology (e.g.,
   microswitches) or indices of happiness
   could prove useful in aiding in the
   identification of preferred stimuli.
5. Complex stimuli can be assessed through
   the use of pictorial or verbal preference
   assessments if the individual has the
   requisite identity matching skills (visual
   MTS for the pictorial assessment and
   auditory MTS for the verbal assessment).
6. If the individual engages in problem
   behavior maintained by access to preferred
   stimuli, the FO assessment should be
   considered. If the problem behavior is
   maintained by attention, one should use
   the PS, SS, or MSWO assessment.
7. When possible, always try to provide
   access to the selected stimulus
8. When identifying the items to be included in
   the preference assessment, one should
   consider both the ecological fit and likely
   effectiveness.
9. Separate preference assessments should
   be conducted for different classes of
   stimuli

Answer 81

Some General Recommendations