22. Perception, prejudice, and bias

Question 1

What is Kelly’s covariation model?

Answer 1

A model of attribution theory that describes three pieces of information that influence our judgment of how to attribute behaviors: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency

Question 2

Consensus

Answer 2

The extent that other people behave the same way in a similar situation

Question 3

Distinctiveness

Answer 3

The extent to which the person in question behaves the same way in a similar situation

Question 4

Consistency

Answer 4

The extent to which the person in question behaves the same way every time in this exact situation

Question 5

Stereotype-threat

Answer 5

When exposure to a negative stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and affects performance
Example: If girls are told that “girls are bad at math” they will perform worse on math tests

Question 6

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 6

The existence of stereotypes leads to reinforcing behaviors of that stereotype
Example: The stereotype of “rude New Yorkers” leads people in Manhattan to act ruder

Question 7

Stigma

Answer 7

Disapprove/dislike of a specific person/group based on perceived differences compared to the rest of the society

Question 8

Social stigma

Answer 8

Fueled by stereotypes (cognition), prejudices (emotion), and discrimination (behavior)

Question 9

Self-stigma

Answer 9

pp internalize those puclic stigma, feeling rejection from the society

Question 10

Frustration-aggression hypothesis( prejudice)

Answer 10

Frustrations can get channeled into prejudice and aggressive behaviors against a group
Example: Losing your job may lead to prejudice against minority immigrants

Question 11

Hypothesis of relative deprivation ( prejudice)

Answer 11

Those who are lacking compared to others will experience collective unrest, increasing prejudice
Example: Economic deprivation leads to prejudice

Question 12

Personality type hypothesis (prejudice)

Answer 12

Certain personality types such as authoritarian personalities are more prone to prejudice
In this case prejudice is used to protect their ego and avoid their own insecurities

Question 13

Stereotype threat (prejudice)

Answer 13

Occurs when an individual is made aware of a negative stereotype regarding the individual’s own group, causing the individual’s performance to suffer by awareness of this negative stereotype

Question 14

Implicit association test

Answer 14

Psychometric test designed to measure unconscious attitudes, including prejudice

Question 15

In group vs out group

Answer 15

Group to which an individual identifies and belongs
in-group members are usually viewed favorably

Group to which an individual does not identify or belong
Out-group members are usually viewed unfavorably

Question 16

Reference group

Answer 16

Comparison group to which an individual compares self as a model
Individual may or may not belong to this group

Question 17

Group views-group favoritism

Answer 17

we view the in-group favorably but the out-group neutrally

Question 18

Group view- group derogation

Answer 18

we view the in-group favorably but the out-group negatively, caused by a feeling of being threatened by the out-group

Question 19

Group polarization

Answer 19

The phenomenon where the group’s collective views tend to be more extreme than individuals within the group

Question 20

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 20

Tendency to attribute behavior to internal individual factors rather than complex external factors

Question 21

Actor-observer bias

Answer 21

Tendency to believe that our own selves are victims of circumstance whereas other people are willful actors

Question 22

Cultural differences

Western vs Eastern cultures

Answer 22

Western cultures are more individualistic so success is attributed to internal factors whereas failure is attributed to external factors
Eastern cultures are more collectivist so both success and failure are attributed to external factors

Question 23

Self-serving bias

Answer 23

Tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors, preserving our self-esteem
More common in individualistic societies.

Question 24

Ethnocentrism

Answer 24

A world view in which one’s own culture is seen as inherently superior to others, which leads to judging all societies by your own culture’s standards

Question 25

Cultural relativism

Answer 25

A world view in which universal right-or-wrong does not exist, and therefore all societies should be judged by their own cultural standards

Question 26

Social-perception: primacy vs recency

Answer 26

Primacy bias is based on strong retention of first impressions while recency bias is based on strong retention of most recent actions
This mirrors information retention when people can best remember the first and last items of a list

Question 27

Halo vs reverse Halo effect

Answer 27

Tendency to think that people that are good/bad at one thing are good/bad at everything
Example: People overrate the leadership skills of physically attractive people

Question 28

Just world hypothesis

Answer 28

Represents the notion that good deeds are rewarded and bad deeds are punished–> lead to fundamental attribution error

Question 29

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 29

Attributing another’s behavior to internal factors, such as personality, instead of external or situational factors

Question 30

Attribution theory

Answer 30

Theories of how we explain behaviors that happen around us, either resulting from internal or external causes

Question 31

Dispositional attribution

Answer 31

Assumption that a person’s behavior reflects their internal beliefs

Question 32

Situational attribution

Answer 32

Assumption that a person’s behavior reflects their external situational factors

Question 33

Optimism bias

Answer 33

Belief that bad things happen to others, not ourselves

In other words, underestimating the likelihood of bad things