2-2 Beecher & Brenowitz

Question 1

What are songs?

Answer 1

complex species-specific signals given by animals of many taxa in mating and intrasexual contexts, most commonly by males to attract females and to repel
rival males

Question 2

In most animal taxa, these species-specific

vocal signals develop without ______ _____ ____

Answer 2

In most animal taxa, these species-specific
vocal signals develop without significant environmental
input

Question 3

Which animals learn species-specific vocal signals?

Answer 3

• humans
• cetaceans
• some bats
• three orders of birds

Question 4

Particularly striking is the
comparison of the ______ passerines and the closely related
______ passerines

Answer 4

Particularly striking is the
comparison of the oscine passerines and the closely related
suboscine passerines

Question 5

Particularly striking is the
comparison of the oscine passerines and the closely related
suboscine passerines for, although song functions in much
the same way in both groups, song is learned in the ______
but not in the _____

Answer 5

Particularly striking is the
comparison of the oscine passerines and the closely related
suboscine passerines for, although song functions in much
the same way in both groups, song is learned in the oscines
but not in the suboscines

Question 6

Evolutionary questions about song learning in songbirds originally focused on what?

Answer 6

Evolutionary questions about song learning in songbirds originally focused on the adaptive advantages of
learning song versus not learning song

Question 7

As comparative
studies of songbirds have accumulated, however, the focus
has shifted to the evolution of different song-learning
programs within the _____

Answer 7

As comparative
studies of songbirds have accumulated, however, the focus
has shifted to the evolution of different song-learning
programs within the oscines

Question 8

Songbird species differ as

to whether they what?

Answer 8

(i) learn songs in the first few months of life, over the first year, or throughout their lifetimes;
(ii) learn a single song or a repertoire of songs;

(iii) develop their song repertoires by imitating external models, by
improvising on tutor songs, or by inventing songs with
minimal reference to the external models;

(iv) require early exposure to conspecific song or can develop speciestypical song even when raised in isolation;
(v) copy only tutor songs that fit tightly constrained speciesspecific parameters or copy essentially anything they hear.

Question 9

A phylogenetic perspective

addresses what possibility?

Answer 9

A phylogenetic perspective
addresses the possibility that the different song-learning
strategies are not responses to different functional
problems, but are alternative approaches to the same
functional problem

Question 10

Song learning and production in songbirds are regulated by what?

Answer 10

Song learning and production in songbirds are regulated by a

discrete network of hormone-sensitive brain nuclei

Question 11

Song learning and production in songbirds are regulated by a
discrete network of hormone-sensitive brain nuclei [54]. This brain
network has been observed in each of the ____+ ____ species in ___
families examined thus far, but is lacking in ___ species in three
____ families that have been investigated

Answer 11

Song learning and production in songbirds are regulated by a
discrete network of hormone-sensitive brain nuclei [54]. This brain
network has been observed in each of the 60+ oscine species in ten
families examined thus far, but is lacking in seven species in three
suboscine families that have been investigated

Question 12

Inspection of the song system in different oscine taxa shows that
this neural system is uniform in _____ and ____ _______ across taxa

Answer 12

Inspection of the song system in different oscine taxa shows that
this neural system is uniform in morphology and chemical properties across taxa

Question 13

Three attributes
of the song system might enable the production of extreme
behavioral diversity by this highly conserved network of brain nuclei

what are they?

Answer 13

(i) The network appears to function exclusively in controlling
song-related behavior.

; (ii) Steroid hormones have pronounced
influences on the development and activation of these circuits.

(iii) Song is a
learned behavior and is thus subject to rapid modification via
cultural evolution.

Question 14

Three attributes
of the song system might enable the production of extreme
behavioral diversity by this highly conserved network of brain nuclei

what do the attributes potentially provide?

Answer 14

These three attributes together might provide the
plasticity that has enabled the diverse expression of song learning
across groups.

Question 15

Closed-ended learner

Answer 15

Closed-ended learner: a bird that does not modify its repertoire after the first
year. Also known as age-limited learner.

Question 16

Imitation:

Answer 16

Imitation: a song that is a good copy of a tutor song.

Question 17

Improvisation

Answer 17

Improvisation: a song that resembles a tutor song, but which is substantially
different in certain respects.

Question 18

Invention

Answer 18

Invention: a song that cannot be traced to a tutor song.

Question 19

Mimicry

Answer 19

Mimicry: copying of sounds other than conspecific song, typically heterospecific song, but sometimes non-avian or even non-animal sounds

Question 20

Open-ended learner

Answer 20

Open-ended learner: the bird modifies its song repertoire after its first calendar year.

Question 21

Repertoire matching

Answer 21

Repertoire matching: replying to a song with a different song from the
repertoire of the bird that matches a song that the stimulus bird has in its own
repertoire

Question 22

Sensitive period

Answer 22

Sensitive period: a relatively short period early in life when a bird is receptive to
song memorization

Question 23

Sensorimotor phase

Answer 23

Sensorimotor phase: phase during which a bird sings and tries to match its
output to earlier-memorized songs; follows or overlaps the sensory phase.

Question 24

Sensory phase

Answer 24

Sensory phase: phase of song learning during which the bird memorizes the
tutor song.

Question 25

Song

Answer 25

Song: a relatively complex vocalization used in interactions with males and/or
female conspecifics. A single song (or strophe) is usually relatively short
(usually 2–4 sec) and is separated by a longer period of silence before the next
song. In some cases, birds sing more continuously and individual songs can be
quite long (e.g. 20 sec or more in sedge warblers).

Question 26

Song dialect

Answer 26

Song dialect: song similarity over a larger geographic area (i.e. on the scale of
kilometers).

Question 27

Song element

Answer 27

Song element: a song is composed of a series of contrasting elements,
arranged in the same order each time (e.g. in song sparrows and great tits) or in
unique orders every time it sings (e.g. in sedge warblers).

Question 28

Song-learning program

Answer 28

Song-learning program: the genetic-developmental program thought to
underlie song learning in a species (or a race or population of a species).

Question 29

Song matching

Answer 29

Song matching: replying to a song with a similar song. Pertains to cases where
bird has a song repertoire and can select a song type that is similar to the
stimulus song.

Question 30

Song repertoire

Answer 30

Song repertoire: defined in terms of song types or elements. Most birds form
song elements into stable song types, but others (e.g. sedge warblers)
improvise songs from their repertoire of song elements.

Question 31

Song sharing

Answer 31

Song sharing: song similarity within neighborhoods or groups

Question 32

Song type

Answer 32

Song type: song types can be categorized; that is, there is less variation
within song types than between them. Also defined by singing pattern of
bird when it sings songs of one song type consecutively within a bout
(e.g. AAACCCBBBDDD.) or sings its song types with immediate variety
but in a stereotyped order (e.g. ABCDEABCDEA .).

Question 33

White-crowned sparrow

During the sensory or
memorization phase, a young bird must hear a tutor
song and, during the _______ phase, it attempts to
match its vocal output to the songs memorized previously.

Answer 33

During the sensory or
memorization phase, a young bird must hear a tutor
song and, during the sensorimotor phase, it attempts to
match its vocal output to the songs memorized previously.

Question 34

Learning can be demonstrated by isolating the bird during
the ______ phase, or by deafening it just before the
______ phase; both typically produce a bird that
sings abnormal song

Answer 34

Learning can be demonstrated by isolating the bird during
the sensory phase, or by deafening it just before the
sensorimotor phase; both typically produce a bird that
sings abnormal song

Question 35

We
argue here that the diversity of oscine song-learning
programs (reviewed in [3,12]) is more extreme than is
generally appreciated, and varies along at least the
following five dimensions:

Answer 35

• when the song is learned (or how long the song repertoire is modified)
• how many songs a bird learns
• copying fidelity
• role of early song experience
• degree of canalization

Question 36

The period during which birds can learn songs ranges
widely, from a brief sensitive period during the first ___ ____ __ ___ (white-crowned sparrow), to the ___ ___ ___ (chaffinch Fringilla coelebs and indigo bunting
Passerina cyanea [13,14]) to _____ ____ _____
(village indigobird Vidua chalybeata, great tit Parus
major, pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca and willow
warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Answer 36

The period during which birds can learn songs ranges
widely, from a brief sensitive period during the first few
months of life (white-crowned sparrow), to the entire first
year (chaffinch Fringilla coelebs and indigo bunting
Passerina cyanea [13,14]) to throughout the lifetime
(village indigobird Vidua chalybeata, great tit Parus
major, pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca and willow
warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Question 37

The period during which birds can learn songs ranges
widely, from a brief sensitive period during the first few
months of life (___-____ ______), to the entire first
year (___ ____ ___ and ___ ___ ___ ___) to throughout the lifetime
(___ ___ ___ ___, ___ ___ ___ ___, ___ ___ ___ ___ and ___ ___ ___ ___)

Answer 37

The period during which birds can learn songs ranges
widely, from a brief sensitive period during the first few
months of life (white-crowned sparrow), to the entire first
year (chaffinch Fringilla coelebs and indigo bunting
Passerina cyanea [13,14]) to throughout the lifetime
(village indigobird Vidua chalybeata, great tit Parus
major, pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca and willow
warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Question 38

Species in
which birds add songs to their song repertoires after the
first calendar year are referred to as what?

Answer 38

Species in
which birds add songs to their song repertoires after the
first calendar year are referred to as open-ended learners

Question 39

Species in
which birds do not add songs to their song repertoires after the
first calendar year are referred to as

Answer 39

closed-ended (or age-limited) learners

Question 40

Although ___-____ learning has generally been the
default assumption, in most cases there is no evidence to
support this

Answer 40

Although closed-ended learning has generally been the
default assumption, in most cases there is no evidence to
support this

Question 41

species that we assume to be
closed-ended learners might, on closer inspection, prove to
be open-ended learners,

what is an example of this

Answer 41

species that we assume to be
closed-ended learners might, on closer inspection, prove to
be open-ended learners, as, for example, McGregor and
Krebs discovered for great tits

Question 42

It is harder to prove

that learning is closed-ended than that it is not. why?

Answer 42

It is harder to prove
that learning is closed-ended than that it is not, for it takes
only one bird to make the point that learning can occur
beyond the first year, but many more to make the point
that it cannot

Question 43

In ~__% of songbird species studied, males sing multiple

song types

Answer 43

In ~70% of songbird species studied, males sing multiple

song types

Question 44

example of a small song repertoire

Answer 44

chaffinch, great tit and swamp sparrow

Melospiza Georgiana; all less than five

Question 45

example of a moderate song repertoire

Answer 45

song sparrow Melospiza melodia and western

meadowlark Sturnella neglecta; ten or so

Question 46

example of a large song repertoire

Answer 46

western marsh wren Cistothorus palustris and

common nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos; >100

Question 47

example of a huge song repertoire

Answer 47

brown thrasher Toxostoma rufum, >1000

Question 48

____- to _____-sized repertoires are most common

Answer 48

Small- to moderate-sized repertoires are most common

Question 49

Several experiments in which species (song sparrows versus swamp sparrows) or subspecies (eastern versus western marsh wrens) with different repertoire sizes were raised in a common environment established that differences in repertoire size in these cases were due to what?

Answer 49

Several experiments in which species (song sparrows
versus swamp sparrows) or subspecies (eastern versus
western marsh wrens) with different repertoire sizes
were raised in a common environment established that
differences in repertoire size in these cases were due to
genetically based differences in the underlying songlearning programs

Question 50

In different species (and sometimes in different populations of a species), song learners appear to vary along a
continuum, ranging from ____ , to ____ to _____.

Answer 50

In different species (and sometimes in different populations of a species), song learners appear to vary along a
continuum, ranging from imitation (faithful copying of
tutor song), to improvisation (variations on the tutor
material) to invention (develops species-typical songs that
bear no obvious relation to the tutor material, and which
might or might not even require song tutoring).

Question 51

bird song learning was first demonstrated by

showing what?

Answer 51

bird song learning was first demonstrated by

showing that songbirds raised in isolation develop abnormal song

Question 52

examples of isolation not always produce

abnormal song.

Answer 52

grey catbird Dumetella carolinensis and sedge warbler
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus: these birds generate large,
normal song repertoires when raised in song-isolation
conditions

Question 53

In white-crowned sparrows and several other species,
birds copy tutor material only if it fits tightly constrained
____-_____ _______and, in these cases, song
learning would be classified as ______ ______

Answer 53

In white-crowned sparrows and several other species,
birds copy tutor material only if it fits tightly constrained
species-specific parameters and, in these cases, song
learning would be classified as environmentally canalized

Question 54

Marler and Peters [20] found that when
presented with the same tape-recorded regime of song
sparrow and swamp sparrow songs, ____ sparrows will
copy heterospecific as well as conspecific elements, but
___ sparrows will not.

Answer 54

Marler and Peters [20] found that when
presented with the same tape-recorded regime of song
sparrow and swamp sparrow songs, song sparrows will
copy heterospecific as well as conspecific elements, but
swamp sparrows will not.

Question 55

Other species are capable of
copying most things that they hear, the best-known
examples being what?

Answer 55

• brown thrashers
• northern mocking-birds
• marsh watblers
• indian hill mynahs
• superb lyrebirds

Question 56

____ _____ are an important but often neglected

variable in song learning

Answer 56

Social factors are an important but often neglected

variable in song learning

Question 57

what is the tape tutor design

Answer 57

The ‘tape tutor’ design enables precise experimental
control of the key features of song exposure, such as timing and
dosage, and it simplifies the analysis because the experimenter
knows exactly what the bird heard and when it heard it.

Question 58

what is a limitation of the tape tutor design

Answer 58

the omission of possibly the key
variable in song learning, what we loosely label ‘social factors’. The
particular songs that a bird learns could depend as much or more on
which bird is singing and how it sings, as it does on the amount and
the timing of song exposure.

Question 59

what did Baptista and Petrinovich show

Answer 59

In song-learning experiments with
white-crowned sparrows, Baptista and Petrinovich [58] showed that
the rules of song learning derived from Marler’s classic experiments
with this species were stretched or broken when the song tutors
were live birds.

For example, whereas tape-tutored white crowns
reject heterospecific song and any song presented beyond 50 days,
live-tutored white crowns can learn conspecific or heterospecific
song presented after day 50

Question 60

what did nordby find about song sparrows with live tutors?

Answer 60

Nordby et al. [60] found that song sparrows
tutored by live tutors learned more from late tutors (introduced after
day 150) than they did from early tutors (removed on day 90)

Question 61

what does nordby’s results contrast with?

Answer 61

This
outcome contrasts with an earlier tape tutor study by Marler and
Peters [61] which found early tutors to be more effective than late
tutors, with most of the songs the bird ultimately sang having been
heard before day 90.

Question 62

Social factors
have the potential to modify the effects of all the other variables

what are some examples of this?

Answer 62

e.g. extend the sensitive period, make late tutors more effective than
early tutors, reduce canalization, change a bird from an improviser to
a copier, etc.

Question 63

A new approach to reconciling the
conflicting results that have been obtained with live tutors and
tape tutors is what?

Answer 63

the ‘virtual tutor’: the computer presentation of
digitized song streams to an isolated young bird in a fashion
designed to simulate typical tutor–tutor and tutor–tutee song
interactions

Question 64

Most functional hypotheses of
song, however, have focused on _______________________________________,
and have not directly addressed t______________________________________________

Answer 64

Most functional hypotheses of
song, however, have focused on the adult song repertoire,
and have not directly addressed the song-learning
strategy by which the bird reaches that final repertoire.

Question 65

Song hypotheses fall into two general classes,

what are these classes

Answer 65

those that view song repertoire size as the target of selection and
those that view song sharing as the target.

Question 66

According to

the Repertoire hypothesis, __________________________________________

Answer 66

According to
the Repertoire hypothesis, the song-learning program is
designed to give the bird a large song repertoire

Question 67

according to the Sharing hypothesis ________________________________________________________________________________________-

Answer 67

according to the Sharing hypothesis , the song-learning program is designed to give
the bird songs that it shares with its neighbors or group
members

Question 68

There is considerable empirical support for the hypothesis that repertoire size is under strong directional sexual
selection in some songbirds

what is an example of this

Answer 68

The evidence comes
from several large-repertoire species and, in these cases, the evidence suggests that
repertoire size is driven by female choice

Question 69

The applicability

of the Repertoire hypothesis is limited, however, by what?

Answer 69

The applicability
of the Repertoire hypothesis is limited, however, by the
fact that most songbird species have just one or a few songs.

Question 70

About __% of species have single-song repertoires,

and at least another __% have very small repertoires

Answer 70

About 30% of species have single-song repertoires,

and at least another 50% have very small repertoires

Question 71

Small repertoires can
perhaps be explained as being the result of the high costs
of ___ _____, but evidence that song repertoires are
costly is limited

Answer 71

Small repertoires can
perhaps be explained as being the result of the high costs
of large repertoires, but evidence that song repertoires are
costly is limited

Question 72

A related hypothesis is that a
complex network of brain nuclei devoted to ___ _____
might entail special developmental and energetic costs

Answer 72

A related hypothesis is that a
complex network of brain nuclei devoted to song learning
might entail special developmental and energetic costs

Question 73

recent evidence that
brain centers involved in song learning are selectively
affected by ______ _____

Answer 73

recent evidence that
brain centers involved in song learning are selectively
affected by developmental stress

Question 74

Sharing hypotheses focus on the advantages of ____ ____

Answer 74

Sharing hypotheses focus on the advantages of song

sharing

Question 75

Song sharing
is common in songbirds and is found in a variety of social
contexts, not only in ____ _____ (the most
commonly studied context), but also in ____ ____
and ____ _____

Answer 75

Song sharing
is common in songbirds and is found in a variety of social
contexts, not only in territorial neighbors (the most
commonly studied context), but also in lekking species
and communal breeders

Question 76

In indigo buntings, first-year birds that ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ __ ____ ____ were more
successful in acquiring a territory, mating and fledging
young than were birds that did not

Answer 76

In indigo buntings, first-year birds that shared
their single song with an older neighbor were more
successful in acquiring a territory, mating and fledging
young than were birds that did not

Question 77

average repertiore size of song sparrows in USA?

Answer 77

8 or 9

Question 78

first-year song sparrows that ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ with their neighborhood group held their territories
for more years than did birds that shared fewer; by
contrast, ____ ___ did not predict lifetime territory
tenure

Answer 78

first-year song sparrows that shared more of their
songs with their neighborhood group held their territories
for more years than did birds that shared fewer; by
contrast, repertoire size did not predict lifetime territory
tenure

Question 79

Another study of a different western population found a similar correlation between ____ and
song sharing

Answer 79

Another study of a different western population found a similar correlation between survival and
song sharing

Question 80

In a third study of western song
sparrows, it was found that repertoire size predicted
____ ____ but not ____ ____ in a bird’s first
year [37]; song sharing was not measured in this study.

Answer 80

In a third study of western song
sparrows, it was found that repertoire size predicted
mating success but not territory acquisition in a bird’s first
year [37]; song sharing was not measured in this study.

Question 81

three studies about song sparrows taken together suggest what?

Answer 81

three studies taken together suggest that, in
western song sparrows, female choice might select for
large song repertoires and male–male competition might
select for song sharing.

Question 82

what is the Dear Enemy hypothesis

Answer 82

long-term neighbors are preferred to newcomers
because newcomers are inherently expansionist, whereas old
neighbors generally respect territory boundaries once they have
been mutually established

Question 83

how does Dear Enemy hypothesis apply to songs

Answer 83

. Neither preferring nor cooperating with
familiar neighbors requires shared songs, but shared songs are a
reliable signal (a ‘badge’) of familiarity or locality because they must
be learned in the local neighborhood.

Question 84

what did a study find to support the dear enemy hypothesis?

Answer 84

a recent study [64] found that neighboring song sparrows
sharing fewer songs were more aggressive with one another than
were neighbors sharing more songs.

Question 85

A corollary of the Dear Enemy hypothesis for territorial songbirds
is that established neighbors should use their songs in place of _____- and _____-_____ physical interactions to minimize unnecessary
territorial conflicts

Answer 85

A corollary of the Dear Enemy hypothesis for territorial songbirds
is that established neighbors should use their songs in place of timeand energy-costly physical interactions to minimize unnecessary
territorial conflicts

Question 86

Playback studies of song sparrows and banded
wrens have supported this prediction

what did they find

Answer 86

birds
use their mix of shared and unshared song types to form a graded
signaling system for mediating territorial interactions. Even when
neighbors do not share any song types (with respect to the
investigators’ criterion), they might still be able to song match
using songs in their repertoires that they perceive as being most
similar

Question 87

A song
sparrow typically engages a neighboring bird by singing one of the song types
that they share. The neighbor then either does what?

Answer 87

(i) returns a directed but low-threat
signal by repertoire matching; that is, by replying with a shared type other than
the one that the neighbor just sang; or

(ii) escalates the interaction by song
(type) matching; that is, by replying with the same song type as the neighbor
just sang; or

(iii) de-escalates by replying with an unshared type

Question 88

Song learning designed to
maximize the number of songs copied from a set of birds,
the ‘tutors’, (such as, for example, the present neighbors)
cannot also maximize what?

Answer 88

Song learning designed to
maximize the number of songs copied from a set of birds,
the ‘tutors’, (such as, for example, the present neighbors)
cannot also maximize the percentage of songs shared with
this or a similar set of birds (e.g. the future neighbors).

Question 89

It is also the case that such a
learning preference for tutor-shared songs will
increase the chance that the song learner will still share
songs with tutor-neighbors even if what?

Answer 89

It is also the case that such a
learning preference for tutor-shared songs (e.g. the songs in
the top rows versus those in the bottom row of Figure 1) will
increase the chance that the song learner will still share
songs with tutor-neighbors even if some of those neighbors
die ormove away

Question 90

The Sharing hypothesis also provides a novel perspective on the difference between closed-ended and openended learners

what is this?

Answer 90

If the ‘goal’ of a bird is to develop songs
that are similar to those of its neighbors, then an openended learner could add and drop songs each year so as to
increase song sharing with its new neighbors.

Question 91

If the ‘goal’ of a bird is to develop songs
that are similar to those of its neighbors, then an openended learner could add and drop songs each year so as to
increase song sharing with its new neighbors.

what is the support for this?

Answer 91

Such a
pattern has been observed in several species examined so
far [15,34,39–42].

A similar result has been found for birds
that change their song in the beginning of their first or
second breeding season [13,43,44].

Question 92

why should the optimal repertoire size be smaller for open-ended learners?

Answer 92

the optimal
repertoire size should be smaller for open-ended learners
than for comparable closed-ended learners, because openended learners have the opportunity to replace nonmatching songs with matching songs.

Contrariwise, a
closed-ended learner does not have the ability to change
its repertoire to increase sharing, but if it has more songs
to begin with, it has a better chance of finding a suitable
match.

Question 93

most of
the open-ended learners that replace songs to increase
sharing have ____ _____ than do comparable
closed-ended learners

Answer 93

most of
the open-ended learners that replace songs to increase
sharing have smaller repertoires than do comparable
closed-ended learners

Question 94

Kroodsma [12] has argued that, for birds without longterm neighbors, there is no advantage to _____ ____,
and so the development of ____ ____-_____ ____ will be favored.

Answer 94

Kroodsma [12] has argued that, for birds without longterm neighbors, there is no advantage to shared songs,
and so the development of generalized species-typical
songs will be favored.

Question 95

Northern
populations of sedge wrens are migratory and seminomadic during the breeding season, and so an individual
has a constantly changing set of neighbors. When tutored
with taped song, what happened?

Answer 95

When tutored
with taped song, North American sedge wrens do not
imitate these songs but rather improvise or invent songs,
all of them normal species songs

Question 96

North American sedge wrens do not
imitate these songs but rather improvise or invent songs,
all of them normal species songs [47].

the
closely related but sedentary marsh wrens faithfully did what?

Answer 96

By contrast, the
closely related but sedentary marsh wrens faithfully copy
tutor songs in comparable experiments, and in the field they
share songs with their neighbors.

Question 97

tropical
populations of sedge wrens, which unlike the semi-nomadic
northern populations are _____, show the common
pattern of song sharing with neighbors that is generally
taken to imply song learning from neighbors

Answer 97

tropical
populations of sedge wrens, which unlike the semi-nomadic
northern populations are sedentary, show the common
pattern of song sharing with neighbors that is generally
taken to imply song learning from neighbors

Question 98

we suggest that the best
approach to understanding these different learning
strategies will be to view them in a ______ context

Answer 98

we suggest that the best
approach to understanding these different learning
strategies will be to view them in a phylogenetic context

Question 99

Price and Lanyon [50] looked for a correlation
between the intensity of ____ ____ (measured as
____ ____) and ____ ____ in the oropendolas
and caciques.

Answer 99

Price and Lanyon [50] looked for a correlation
between the intensity of sexual selection (measured as
sexual dimorphism) and song complexity in the oropendolas
and caciques.

Question 100

Price and Lanyon [50] looked for a correlation
between the intensity of sexual selection (measured as
sexual dimorphism) and song complexity in the oropendolas
and caciques.

what did they detect?

Answer 100

They detected effects of sexual selection and
found that different aspects of song were affected in different
lineages.

Question 101

Irwin [52] found that variation

in song repertoire size was not explained by ____ _____ ____ in New World ______ (Icterinae),

Answer 101

Irwin [52] found that variation
in song repertoire size was not explained by directional
sexual selection in New World blackbirds (Icterinae),

Question 102

In a study of
emberizine sparrows (Emberizinae), Irwin [53] found the
most parsimonious hypothesis to be _____________________________________________, indicating
that there had been selection for ______________________________________

Answer 102

In a study of
emberizine sparrows (Emberizinae), Irwin [53] found the
most parsimonious hypothesis to be that the common
ancestor of these species was a repertoire species, indicating
that there had been selection for smaller repertoires in
several of these species (including the one-song whitecrowned sparrow)

Question 103

Handley and Nelson [49] examined 65
populations in the family Fringillidae.

What did they find?

Answer 103

They found that song
sharing or song dialects evolved rapidly in response to local
conditions, being responsive to whether the species was
migratory or sedentary and to breeding latitude (higher
song sharing for sedentary species and low breeding
latitudes).

Local song sharing was randomly distributed
on the phylogeny.

Repertoire size and song sharing were
uncorrelated, consistent with the hypothesis that they are
responsive to different selective forces.

Question 104

These new phylogenetic studies have been aptly

summarized by Price and Lanyon:

Answer 104

‘Song appears to
provide multiple potential targets for selection . and as
a consequence, different evolutionary patterns have
emerged in different lineages

Question 105

We suggest that a

profitable line of future research will be to plot what?

Answer 105

We suggest that a

profitable line of future research will be to plot characteristics of song learning on songbird phylogenies.

Question 106

A phylogenetic analysis might reveal what?

Answer 106

A
phylogenetic analysis might reveal, as these recent
analyses suggest, that song-learning programs have
evolved along different trajectories in different lineages

Question 107

what is the only real impediment in phylogenetic analysis?

Answer 107

At this point,
the only real impediment to the proposed project is the
lack of data on song learning as compared to the much
larger database on song traits such as repertoire size.

Question 108

Song learning evolved early during the _____ _____ and

led to ____ ____ and _____ __ _____.

Answer 108

Song learning evolved early during the oscine lineage and

led to enhanced complexity and diversity of song.

Question 109

The diversity of song-learning
strategies in oscine species varies on at least five dimensions

what are they

Answer 109

(i) closed-ended versus open-ended learning;
(ii) repertoire size;

(iii) imitation versus improvisation
versus invention;

(iv) external versus internal song models;
(v) selective song learning versus mimicry.

Question 110

The most difficult problem for functional hypotheses is presented by what?

Answer 110

The most difficult problem for functional hypotheses is presented by different oscine lineages
responding to similar selection pressures with different
modifications of the song-learning program.

Question 111

The most difficult problem for functional hypotheses is presented by different oscine lineages
responding to similar selection pressures with different
modifications of the song-learning program.

what is an example of this

Answer 111

For example, perhaps the song-learning programs of sedge warblers and marsh wrens have been driven by sexual selection to the same goal of developing a large song repertoire. But if so, then the differences in the song-learning programs of these two species – one requiring external song models and the other not – might best be explained not in terms of different selection pressures but in terms of different ancestries.