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Physiology > 14-16 - The Respiratory System > Flashcards

14-16 - The Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Outline the 4 functions of the respiratory system…

A
  1. Gas exchange
  2. pH regulation (via retention or removal of CO2)
  3. Protection from inhaled irritants and pathogens
  4. Vocalisation
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2
Q

Gas exchange can be divided into 3 phases…

A
  • External ventilation
    • atmosphere to the lung
  • Internal transport
    • transport of gases via blood
  • Internal respiration
    • blood to cells
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3
Q

“Respiratory and circulatory systems coordinate the tranfer of ___ and ___ between ____ and the atmosphere.”

A

“Respiratory and circulatory systems coordinate the tranfer of O2 and CO2 between cells and the atmosphere.”

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4
Q

The anatomy of the respiratory system can be divided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Where does one end and the other begin?

A

The upper respiratory tract is the area between the nasal cavity and the start of the trachea. The lower respiratory tract is from the trachea down.

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5
Q

In terms of functional anatomy, the conducting systems connect the _________________ to the ___________. They _____, _______ & humidify the air.

A

In terms of functional anatomy, the conducting systems connect the external environment to the exchange surfaces. They warm, filter & humidify the air.

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6
Q

The left lung has __ lobes.

A

The left lung has 2 lobes.

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7
Q

The right lung has __ lobes.

A

The right lung has 3 lobes.

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8
Q

In terms of functional anatomy, the respiratory zone comprises the _____ and their __________ supply. It is the ___________ surface.

A

In terms of functional anatomy, the respiratory zone comprises the alveoli and their capillary supply. It is the gas exchange surface.

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9
Q

The nose and nasal cavity serve which 4 functions?

A
  • Filter debris
  • Secrete antibacterial substances
  • Olfactory receptors
  • Enhances vocal resonance
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10
Q

The soft palate of the pharynx prevents entry of…

A

Food into the nasopharynx and nasal cavity

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11
Q

The larynx prevents foods and liquids from entering…

A

The respiratory tract (wih the epiglottis)

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12
Q

The structure of the lower respiratory tract conducting system (i.e. from larynx to alveoli) is often described as the…

A

Bronchial tree (due to its progressively branching structure)

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13
Q

The trachea splits into two branches, the left and right _______ ______

A

The trachea splits into two branches, the left and right primary bronchi

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14
Q

Divisions 2-11 are…

A

Progressively smaller bronchi

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15
Q

Divisions 12-23 are the…

A

Bronchioles

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16
Q

The terminal division of the bronchioles (24) feeds into…

A

A cluster of alveoli

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17
Q

Epithelial cells in the lower conducting system…

A ciliated epithelial layer lines the ______, ______ and primary _______ .

A

Epithelial cells in the lower conducting system…

A ciliated epithelial layer lines the larynx, trachea and primary bronchi.

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18
Q

The ciliated epitheal layer lining the lower conducting system is made up of which two cell types?

A

Goblet cells (secrete mucus) and cilliated cells (sweep mucus up to pharynx, secrete saline)

Together their action creates the mucocillary escalator which removes noxious particles from the lungs.

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19
Q

The saline secretion pathway in the ciliated cells of the airway epithelium is essential for the proper function of the…

A

Mucocillary escalator

(In cystic fibrosis this pathway is disfunctional)

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20
Q

Outline the 4 steps of the saline secretion pathway

A
  1. NKCC brings Cl- from ECF
  2. Anion channels, such as CFTR, allow Cl- to enter lumen
  3. Na+ follows from ECF to lumen by paracellular pathway (pulled by electrochemical gradient)
  4. Overall ion movement creates a concentration gradient which pulls water into the lumen (NaCl + H2O = saline)
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21
Q

C-shaped rings of cartillage help keep trachea open while remaining…

A

Flexible enough to allow for the change in diameter occuring during breathing

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22
Q

The posterior (back) surface of the trachea is covered with…

A

Elastic connective tissue and smooth muscle (trachealis muscle)

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23
Q

As the airways divide into progressively narrower passages the cartilage changes from…

a) Complete rings to C-shaped with more plates
b) C-shaped to complete rings with fewer plates
c) Columnar to square with more plates
d) Cartilage to bone with fewer plates

A

As the airways divide into progressively narrower passages the cartilage changes from…

a) Complete rings to C-shaped with more plates

b) C-shaped to complete rings with fewer plates

c) Columnar to square with more plates
d) Cartilage to bone with fewer plates

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24
Q

In addition to the change in cartilage, moving from bronchi to bronchioles there are also changes in (2). The overall effect of these changes is…

A

The amount of smooth muscle (it increases) and the epithelial cells become more columnar

The overall effect of these changes is to allow the tiny airways to change diameter thus controlling airflow through the bronchioles and alveoli.

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25
Q

True or false…

Bronchioles lack ciliated epithelium

A

TRUE

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26
Q

True or false…

Bronchioles lack cartilage and a smooth muscle layer

A

FALSE!

Bronchioles lack cartilage, however they do have a smooth muscle layer

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27
Q

For each terminal/respiratory bronchiole there…

a) is one alveolar duct
b) are 3+ alveolar ducts
c) are 2+ alveolar ducts
d) is one alveoli

A

For each terminal/respiratory bronchiole there…

a) is one alveolar duct
b) are 3+ alveolar ducts

c) are 2+ alveolar ducts

d) is one alveoli

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28
Q

Name the 3 types of alveoli cell…

(Hint: one of them is an immune cell)

A
  • Type I
    • Thin for gas exchange (90% of cells)
  • Type II
    • Smaller, thicker, produce surfactant
  • Macrophages
    • Protect alveoli from small particles
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29
Q

Which is the most abundant type of alveoli cell?

A

Type I (thin gas exchange cells)

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30
Q

“External intercostal muscles and scalenes raise the rib cage up and out. Internal intercostal and accessory muscles are not recruited.”

This is a description of:

a) forced inhalation
b) normal inhalation
c) pressure changes
d) forced breathing

A

“External intercostal muscles and scalenes raise the rib cage up and out. Internal intercostal and accessory muscles are not recruited.”

This is a description of:

a) forced inhalation

b) normal inhalation

c) pressure changes
d) forced breathing

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31
Q

In terms of muscles recruited, describe the difference between quiet breathing and active breathing expiration…

A

In quiet breathign expiration results from the passive elastic recoil of the lings, rib cage and diaphragm.

In active breathing internal intercostals, abdominals and accessory muscles are involved (pulling ribs down and diaphragm up)

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32
Q
A
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33
Q

The basal laminae of type I alveolar cells are…

A

Fused with the endothelial cells of the capillary to decrease the distance for gas exchange

34
Q

Boyle’s law describes the relationship between pressure and…

A

Volume

35
Q

Pressure gradients influence ventilation. Name 3 pressures relevant to ventilation…

A
  • Patmos - atmospheric pressure (760mmHg @ sea level)
  • Palv - intrapulmonary pressure (within alveoli), rises and falls w/ ventilation, equilibrates w/ Patmos
  • PIP - pressure in pleural cavity, rises and falls w/ ventialtion
36
Q

Describe the process of inspiration…

A
  1. Contraction of inspiratory muscles
  2. Thoracic volume increase and intrapleural pressure drops
  3. Lung volume increases
  4. Alveolar pressure drops
  5. Air is pulled into lungs
37
Q

Describe the process of expiration…

A
  • Relaxation of inspiratory muscles (and contraction of expiratory muscles*)
  • Thoracic volume decreases and intrapleural pressure rises
  • Lung volume decreases
  • Alveolar pressure increases
  • Air is pushed out of lungs to functional residual capacity (or below functional residual capacity*)

*in the case of forced expiration

38
Q

PIP (intraplural pressure) is typically:

a) 760mmHg
b) -4mmHg
c) 12mmHg
d) -12mmHg

A

PIP (intraplural pressure) is typically:

a) 760mmHg

b) -4mmHg

c) 12mmHg
d) -12mmHg

(negative as the two sides of the intraplural cavity pull away from one another)

39
Q

Elasticity is the ability of tissue to…

A

Return to its original state after being stretched

40
Q

Elastic recoil is important for _______ expiration.

A

Elastic recoil is important for normal expiration.

41
Q

Elastic fibres support the…

A

Alveolia

42
Q

List 3 factors affecting gas exchange in the alveoli…

A
  1. Surface area
  2. Diffusion distance (barrier thickness + amount of fluid)
  3. Perfusion of the alveoli
43
Q

There are three main physical factors which influence pulmonary ventilation. They are…

A
  • Airway resistance
  • Alveolar surface tension (liquid film gas water boundary)
  • Lung compliance (strech of the lung and chest wall)
44
Q

1. Airway resistance is determined by (4)…

A
  • Length of system*
  • Airway diameter
  • Flow (laminar or turbulent)
  • Viscocity of gas*

*can assume as constant

45
Q

Bronchi have the highest resistance. Factors that can further increase the resistance are…

A
  • Inflammation
  • ↑ Mucus secretion
  • Tumours
46
Q

Bronchial tone is controlled by the _______ nervous system…

A

Bronchial tone is controlled by the autonomic nervous system…

47
Q

Bronchoconstriction occurs via innervation by the ___________ NS

A

Bronchoconstriction occurs via innervation by the parasympathetic NS

48
Q

Bronchodilation occurs when…

A

Circulating adrenalin binds to sympathetic β2 receptors

49
Q

2. Alveolar surface tension occurs at the liquid-gas boundary because the gases are…

A

Non-polar

50
Q

2. Alveolar surface tension is ( higher / lower / the same ) in smaller alveoli…

A

2. Alveolar surface tension is higher in smaller alveoli…

This creates a higher resistance to inflation

51
Q

Surfactant reduces surface tension and is necessarily present in ( smaller / greater ) quantities in small alveoli to prevent their collapse (bonus: which is known as _____________ )

A

Surfactant reduces surface tension and is necessarily present in greater quantities in small alveoli to prevent their collapse (bonus: which is known as atelectasis )

52
Q

Surfactant is produced by which type of alveolar cell (type I or type II)?

A

Type II

53
Q

Surfactant contains both protein and phospholipid. Molecules have both a polar and non-polar end allowing them to…

A

Disrupt hydrogen bonding between water molecules

(like detergent, soap or pancreatic bile)

54
Q

Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

A

Lack of surfactant (often in premature births as it is not produced until the last 10-12wks of gestation)

55
Q

3. Lung compliance is defined as the change in volume produced by a given change in…

A

Pressure

(it is the reciprocal of elasticity)

56
Q

The 3 factors affecting compliance are…

A
    1. Alveolar surface tension
  • Distensibility* of lung elastic tissue during inflation
  • Movement or stretchability of chest wall during inspiration

*ability to swell due to pressure from the inside, e.g. like a balloon

57
Q

Compliance decreases as pressure…

A

Increases (as the limit of stretch is approached)

58
Q

Emphysema…

a) decreases compliance as scar tissue replaces elastic tissue
b) increases compliance due to loss of alveoli
c) increase compliance as scar tissue replaces elastic tissue
d) decreases compliance due to loss of alveoli

A

Emphysema…

a) decreases compliance as scar tissue replaces elastic tissue (this is fibrosis)

b) increases compliance due to loss of alveoli

c) increase compliance as scar tissue replaces elastic tissue
d) decreases compliance due to loss of alveoli

59
Q

List the 4 key pulmonary volumes and state which can be measured by spirometry…

A
  • Tidal volume (TV or VT)
    • Normal breath (~500ml)
  • Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
    • Forced expiration (~1200ml)
  • Insipiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
    • Exercise inspiration (~3100ml)
  • Residual volume (RV)* (~1200ml)
    • Remaining volume after max expiration

* cannot be measured by spirometry

60
Q

Pulmonary capacities can be calculated from the sum of…

A

2 or more pulmonary volumes

61
Q

List the 4 main pulmonary capacities and how they are calculated from the relevant pulmonary volumes…

A
  • Inspiratory capacity (IC) = VT + IRV
    • (max insp.)
  • Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) = ERV + RV*
    • (remaining total vol. after normal insp.)
  • Vital Capacity (VC) = (VT + IRV) + ERV
    • (max insp. and exp.)
  • Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VT + IRV + ERV + RV*
    • (lung vol. after max insp.)
62
Q

Name four types of non-respiratory ventilation…

A
  • Sigh
  • Yawn
  • Sneeze
  • Cough
63
Q

Name the 3 types of dead space (areas that don’t contribute to gas exchange)…

A
  1. Anatomical dead space (conducting airways)
  2. Alveolar dead space (disfunctional alveoli)
  3. Physiologic dead space (total dead space including anatomical and alveolar)
64
Q

Measuring forced volumes and capacities

FEV1 is the ________________

FVC stands for _______________

FEV1 is ___% of FVC

A

Measuring forced volumes and capacities

FEV1 is the forced expiratory volume in 1 second

FVC stands for forced vital capacity

FEV1 is 80% of FVC

65
Q

Measuring forced volumes and capacities

Describe how obstructive lung disease affects FEV1 and FVC values…

A
  • FEV1 will be decrease as the obstruction reduces the rate of expiraiton
  • FVC will be largely the same

(example: asthma)

66
Q

Measuring forced volumes and capacities

Describe how restrictive lung disease affects FEV1 and FVC values…

A
  • FEV1 is similar
  • FVC is reduced as total lung capacity is reduced

(example: pulmonary fibrosis)

67
Q

After breathing out, the dead space will be filled with __________.

After breathing in, the dead space will be filled with _________.

A

After breathing out, the dead space will be filled with stale air.

After breathing in, the dead space will be filled with fresh air.

68
Q

Pulmonary ventilation =

A

Pulmonary ventilation = ventilation * tidal volume

(this includes the dead space so > alveolar ventilation)

69
Q

Alveolar ventilation =

A

Alveolar ventilation = ventialtion rate * (tidal volume - dead space volume)

70
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

Partial pressures

“The pressure exerted by an individual gas is determined only by its relative abundance in the mixture”

PA = Ptotal x %A

71
Q

Henry’s Law

A

Solubility of gas

solubility of a gas in liquid (at constant temperature) depends on the solubility of gas & partial pressure of gas

Solubility = Henry’s law constant * partial pressure

Sgas = Kgas* Pgas

72
Q

Fick’s Law

A

Diffusion

Flux = (P x ΔC) / X

where…

P = permeability of barrier x surface area

ΔC = concentration gradient across membrane

x = diffusion distance

73
Q

The typical composition of air is…

A
  • 21% O2
  • 79% N2
  • 0.46% H2O
  • 0.04% CO2
74
Q

PO2 in the dead space is ( lower / the same / higher ) compared with the surrounding atmosphere.

A

PO2 in the dead space is lower compared with the surrounding atmosphere.

75
Q

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy uses high PO2 to treat…

A
  • Severe blood loss
  • Crush injuries
  • Anemia
  • Decompression sickness (the bends)
    • pressure redissolves gas bubbles
76
Q

Concentration gradients drive…

A

Gas exchange

77
Q

Alveolar ventilation is affected by…

A

Posture, rate of inspiration and the amount of air inspired

78
Q

Lung perfusion (Q) varies due to…

A

Gravity (as the pulmonary circulation is at relatively low pressure)

79
Q

What is the V/Q ratio for optimal gas exchange…

A

0.9-1

80
Q

Problems with diffusion in…

  • Emphysema
  • Fibrotic lung disease
  • Pulmonary edema
  • Asthma
A

Problems with diffusion in…

  • Emphysema -> destruction of alveoli reduces SA for gas exchange
  • Fibrotic lung disease -> thickened wall slows gas exchange
  • Pulmonary edema -> increased diffusion distance
  • Asthma -> reduced ventilation of alveoli
81
Q

Local control to ensure V/Q matching in the lungs (2)…

A
  • Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
    • Mediated by O2 levels
    • redirects flow to ventilated alveoli
  • Bronchiole diameter
    • Mediated by CO2 levels
    • ↑CO2 levels bronchiole dilation
82
Q
A

Physiology (17 decks)

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