11. THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING Flashcards
What are the major processes underlying thinking?
Reasoning, problem solving, decision making
What does cognition refer to?
All the higher order mental processes, including thinking, decision-making, language, memory, etc.
What is thinking?
The cognitive process that involves processing, organizing, and managing information.
What is a symbol in the context of thinking?
A representation of any event or situation in the environment.
What is the difference between Autistic and Directed thinking?
Autistic thinking uses symbols with personal meaning, while Directed thinking is aimed at solving problems or creating something new.
What are concepts?
Symbolic constructions that represent common features of different objects and events.
What are logical/artifical concepts?
Concepts that can be easily defined by a set of rules or properties.
What are natural concepts?
Concepts that do not have clear-cut attributes and are often based on prototypes.
What are prototypes?
The most typical example of a concept based on experience.
What is the role of culture in thinking?
Culture shapes and influences the way we reason, memorize, and make decisions.
What is problem solving?
Goal-directed behavior motivated by the need to reduce the discrepancy between one state and another.
What are the stages of problem solving?
1) Framing and understanding the problem, 2) Generation of hypothesis, 3) Testing the hypothesis, 4) Evaluation of results and revision.
What is trial and error?
A problem-solving approach where different responses are tried until one works.
What is an algorithm?
A precise sequence of procedures that, if followed, will automatically generate a solution.
What are heuristics?
General rules of thumb based on prior experience that may or may not lead to the desired solution.
What is analogy?
The application of techniques that worked in similar situations in the past.
What is means-end analysis?
Breaking down a problem into sub-goals and working towards them step by step.
What are some barriers to problem solving?
Mental set, functional fixedness.
What is functional fixedness?
The tendency to see the functions of objects only in terms of their usual uses.
What is reasoning?
The cognitive activity of transforming information to reach specific conclusions.
What is formal reasoning?
Reasoning that involves specific methods and is used in straightforward problems.
What is everyday reasoning?
Reasoning involved in daily life, more complex and less defined.
What is deductive reasoning?
Reasoning from general assumptions to specific conclusions.
What is inductive reasoning?
Reasoning based on specific facts and observations to make general conclusions.
What is decision making?
The process of choosing among various alternatives.
What factors influence decision making?
Utility, subjective probability, and the consideration of multiple alternatives.
What are the stages of decision making?
1) Defining and analyzing the problem, 2) Developing alternative solutions, 3) Evaluation of alternatives, 4) Selecting and implementing the best solution, 5) Follow-up.
What are some barriers to decision making?
Lack of information, lack of context, lack of feedback, information overload, cultural barriers, overconfidence, confirmation biases, escalation of commitment.
What are heuristics in decision making?
Mental rules that allow for quick and efficient decisions and judgments.
What is the availability heuristic?
Judging the frequency or likelihood of events based on how easily examples can be brought to mind.
What is the representativeness heuristic?
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles typical examples of a category.
What is the role of culture in problem solving and reasoning?
Culture influences the way individuals reason, make decisions, and solve problems.
How does functional fixedness impact problem solving?
It restricts thinking by focusing only on the traditional uses of objects.
How can mental sets be a barrier to problem solving?
They create mental rigidity, preventing new approaches.
What are mental models?
Knowledge structures that guide interactions with objects and events.
How can one overcome barriers in problem solving?
Enhancing creativity, brainstorming, breaking down problems into parts.
What is the role of cognitive frameworks like schemas?
They represent our knowledge and assumptions about the world.
What are some common cultural influences on reasoning?
Norms and practices can shape thinking patterns and behaviors.
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific, while inductive reasoning moves from specific to general.
What is an example of the availability heuristic?
Overestimating the frequency of plane crashes after seeing news coverage of a crash.
How does overconfidence affect decision making?
It can lead to poor decisions by underestimating risks.
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
What is the role of feedback in decision making?
It helps refine future decisions and avoid repeating mistakes.
What is an example of a heuristic?
Using a rule of thumb to estimate time, like ‘it usually takes 10 minutes to get there.’
What is a mental set?
A habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving.
How can brainstorming help in problem solving?
It encourages creative thinking and generates multiple solutions.
What is a concept?
A mental category that groups objects, events, or characteristics.
How can prototypes affect concept formation?
They serve as typical examples against which new instances are compared.
What is the role of language in thinking?
Language helps in structuring and expressing thoughts.
What is an example of a mental model?
A map in the mind used to navigate a physical environment.
What is the role of decision making in problem solving?
It involves choosing the best course of action among alternatives.
What are some methods to enhance creative thinking?
Encouraging diversity of thought, creating an open environment, challenging assumptions.
What is an example of deductive reasoning?
All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.
What is an example of inductive reasoning?
Seeing that a few swans are white and concluding that all swans are white.
What is the relationship between language and thought?
Language influences how we think and categorize experiences.
How do cognitive biases affect reasoning?
They can distort thinking and lead to incorrect conclusions.
What is a schema?
A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.
What is a cultural norm?
A shared standard of behavior accepted by a group.
How can functional fixedness be overcome?
By thinking outside the box and finding new uses for objects.
What is a mental model?
A representation of a system, object, or concept in the mind.
How does confirmation bias work?
It leads individuals to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.
What is a common barrier to effective decision making?
Overconfidence, leading to underestimating the complexity of situations.
What is the role of heuristics in daily decision making?
They simplify complex decisions but can sometimes lead to errors.
How do schemas influence perception?
They shape how we interpret and remember information.
What is the impact of cultural differences on reasoning?
Different cultures may prioritize different values and reasoning styles.
What is an example of means-end analysis?
Planning a trip by first deciding the destination and then figuring out the steps to get there.
What is the role of context in problem solving?
Context provides the background and specifics needed to understand and solve a problem.
What are cognitive biases?
Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.
What is the role of feedback in learning?
Feedback helps in adjusting and improving future actions and decisions.
What is a common effect of information overload?
It can lead to difficulty in making decisions and increased stress.
What is the importance of analyzing alternatives in decision making?
It helps in identifying the best possible solution to a problem.
What is the impact of cultural training on problem solving?
It enhances the ability to understand and respect different perspectives and approaches.
