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12th Standard Psychology > 11. THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING > Flashcards

11. THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the major processes underlying thinking?

A

Reasoning, problem solving, decision making

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2
Q

What does cognition refer to?

A

All the higher order mental processes, including thinking, decision-making, language, memory, etc.

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3
Q

What is thinking?

A

The cognitive process that involves processing, organizing, and managing information.

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4
Q

What is a symbol in the context of thinking?

A

A representation of any event or situation in the environment.

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5
Q

What is the difference between Autistic and Directed thinking?

A

Autistic thinking uses symbols with personal meaning, while Directed thinking is aimed at solving problems or creating something new.

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6
Q

What are concepts?

A

Symbolic constructions that represent common features of different objects and events.

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7
Q

What are logical/artifical concepts?

A

Concepts that can be easily defined by a set of rules or properties.

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8
Q

What are natural concepts?

A

Concepts that do not have clear-cut attributes and are often based on prototypes.

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9
Q

What are prototypes?

A

The most typical example of a concept based on experience.

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10
Q

What is the role of culture in thinking?

A

Culture shapes and influences the way we reason, memorize, and make decisions.

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11
Q

What is problem solving?

A

Goal-directed behavior motivated by the need to reduce the discrepancy between one state and another.

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12
Q

What are the stages of problem solving?

A

1) Framing and understanding the problem, 2) Generation of hypothesis, 3) Testing the hypothesis, 4) Evaluation of results and revision.

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13
Q

What is trial and error?

A

A problem-solving approach where different responses are tried until one works.

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14
Q

What is an algorithm?

A

A precise sequence of procedures that, if followed, will automatically generate a solution.

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15
Q

What are heuristics?

A

General rules of thumb based on prior experience that may or may not lead to the desired solution.

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16
Q

What is analogy?

A

The application of techniques that worked in similar situations in the past.

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17
Q

What is means-end analysis?

A

Breaking down a problem into sub-goals and working towards them step by step.

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18
Q

What are some barriers to problem solving?

A

Mental set, functional fixedness.

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19
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

The tendency to see the functions of objects only in terms of their usual uses.

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20
Q

What is reasoning?

A

The cognitive activity of transforming information to reach specific conclusions.

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21
Q

What is formal reasoning?

A

Reasoning that involves specific methods and is used in straightforward problems.

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22
Q

What is everyday reasoning?

A

Reasoning involved in daily life, more complex and less defined.

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23
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

Reasoning from general assumptions to specific conclusions.

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24
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

Reasoning based on specific facts and observations to make general conclusions.

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25
Q

What is decision making?

A

The process of choosing among various alternatives.

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26
Q

What factors influence decision making?

A

Utility, subjective probability, and the consideration of multiple alternatives.

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27
Q

What are the stages of decision making?

A

1) Defining and analyzing the problem, 2) Developing alternative solutions, 3) Evaluation of alternatives, 4) Selecting and implementing the best solution, 5) Follow-up.

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28
Q

What are some barriers to decision making?

A

Lack of information, lack of context, lack of feedback, information overload, cultural barriers, overconfidence, confirmation biases, escalation of commitment.

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29
Q

What are heuristics in decision making?

A

Mental rules that allow for quick and efficient decisions and judgments.

30
Q

What is the availability heuristic?

A

Judging the frequency or likelihood of events based on how easily examples can be brought to mind.

31
Q

What is the representativeness heuristic?

A

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles typical examples of a category.

32
Q

What is the role of culture in problem solving and reasoning?

A

Culture influences the way individuals reason, make decisions, and solve problems.

33
Q

How does functional fixedness impact problem solving?

A

It restricts thinking by focusing only on the traditional uses of objects.

34
Q

How can mental sets be a barrier to problem solving?

A

They create mental rigidity, preventing new approaches.

35
Q

What are mental models?

A

Knowledge structures that guide interactions with objects and events.

36
Q

How can one overcome barriers in problem solving?

A

Enhancing creativity, brainstorming, breaking down problems into parts.

37
Q

What is the role of cognitive frameworks like schemas?

A

They represent our knowledge and assumptions about the world.

38
Q

What are some common cultural influences on reasoning?

A

Norms and practices can shape thinking patterns and behaviors.

39
Q

What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

A

Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific, while inductive reasoning moves from specific to general.

40
Q

What is an example of the availability heuristic?

A

Overestimating the frequency of plane crashes after seeing news coverage of a crash.

41
Q

How does overconfidence affect decision making?

A

It can lead to poor decisions by underestimating risks.

42
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

43
Q

What is the role of feedback in decision making?

A

It helps refine future decisions and avoid repeating mistakes.

44
Q

What is an example of a heuristic?

A

Using a rule of thumb to estimate time, like ‘it usually takes 10 minutes to get there.’

45
Q

What is a mental set?

A

A habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving.

46
Q

How can brainstorming help in problem solving?

A

It encourages creative thinking and generates multiple solutions.

47
Q

What is a concept?

A

A mental category that groups objects, events, or characteristics.

48
Q

How can prototypes affect concept formation?

A

They serve as typical examples against which new instances are compared.

49
Q

What is the role of language in thinking?

A

Language helps in structuring and expressing thoughts.

50
Q

What is an example of a mental model?

A

A map in the mind used to navigate a physical environment.

51
Q

What is the role of decision making in problem solving?

A

It involves choosing the best course of action among alternatives.

52
Q

What are some methods to enhance creative thinking?

A

Encouraging diversity of thought, creating an open environment, challenging assumptions.

53
Q

What is an example of deductive reasoning?

A

All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.

54
Q

What is an example of inductive reasoning?

A

Seeing that a few swans are white and concluding that all swans are white.

55
Q

What is the relationship between language and thought?

A

Language influences how we think and categorize experiences.

56
Q

How do cognitive biases affect reasoning?

A

They can distort thinking and lead to incorrect conclusions.

57
Q

What is a schema?

A

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.

58
Q

What is a cultural norm?

A

A shared standard of behavior accepted by a group.

59
Q

How can functional fixedness be overcome?

A

By thinking outside the box and finding new uses for objects.

60
Q

What is a mental model?

A

A representation of a system, object, or concept in the mind.

61
Q

How does confirmation bias work?

A

It leads individuals to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.

62
Q

What is a common barrier to effective decision making?

A

Overconfidence, leading to underestimating the complexity of situations.

63
Q

What is the role of heuristics in daily decision making?

A

They simplify complex decisions but can sometimes lead to errors.

64
Q

How do schemas influence perception?

A

They shape how we interpret and remember information.

65
Q

What is the impact of cultural differences on reasoning?

A

Different cultures may prioritize different values and reasoning styles.

66
Q

What is an example of means-end analysis?

A

Planning a trip by first deciding the destination and then figuring out the steps to get there.

67
Q

What is the role of context in problem solving?

A

Context provides the background and specifics needed to understand and solve a problem.

68
Q

What are cognitive biases?

A

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

69
Q

What is the role of feedback in learning?

A

Feedback helps in adjusting and improving future actions and decisions.

70
Q

What is a common effect of information overload?

A

It can lead to difficulty in making decisions and increased stress.

71
Q

What is the importance of analyzing alternatives in decision making?

A

It helps in identifying the best possible solution to a problem.

72
Q

What is the impact of cultural training on problem solving?

A

It enhances the ability to understand and respect different perspectives and approaches.

12th Standard Psychology (11 decks)

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