1. Overview of A&P Flashcards
Proportion of total phenotypic (observable characteristics) variance attributed to genetic variation….An organism’s genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism’s phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment
heritability
Genetic changes that occur after conception and cannot be passed to next generation
somatic changes
Which one affects every cell in the body? Hereditary mutation or somatic mutation?
Hereditary mutation
Genes are located on one of the 27 chromosome pairs found in the nucleus or on long strands of DNA in the mitochondria. T or F
F, 23
Does intense long exercise induce inflammatory response and suppress immune functions?
Yes
What are the types of pathogens?
bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite
what are the routes of transmission for pathogens?
Droplet, airborne, contact, water-borne, food-borne, blood, arthropod-borne
Natural killer cells have features of both innate and adaptive immunity. T or F
T
Dendritic cells are an important antigen-presenting cell (APC) but what are APC?
Any substance that induces the immune system to produce antibodies against the infection
What type of muscle fiber is more likely to be involved when performing resistance exercise?
Fiber type II (white) fast-twitch muscle (most capable of stimulating bone formation)
How do too high/low estrogen/steroid/thyroid hormones increase chance of osteoporosis?
- too low estrogen levels after menopause will speed up the rhythm of bone remodeling
- too high steroid will slow down osteoblasts (cells that synthesize bone matrix and coordinate mineralization of skeleton) and speed up osteoclasts (cells that degrade bone to initiate normal bone remodelling and mediate bone loss)
- too high thyroid speed up the bone remodeling process, leading to imbalance between osteoblast and osteoclast
How does increase in muscle mass help diabetic patients?
Expand storage capacity for blood sugar in muscle and improve insulin sensitivity
Too much sugar/glucose in blood due to lack of insulin
hyperglycaemia
Which two lobes does the pituitary gland have?
Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis): produce growth and reproduction hormones eg. thyroid, prolactin
Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis): secrete oxytocin (compassion and social bonding) and vasopressin (control urine output and regulate blood pressure)
What does the pituitary gland (hypophysis) do and where is it located?
Aka master endocrine gland. Release hormones that regulate activity of multiple major endocrine organs; it is located below the hypothalamus, which is the primary regulator of pituitary gland, connected by the pituitary stalk
What are the three main types of hormones?
- steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol and are lipophilic eg. testosterone and estrogens
- peptide hormones: made up of chains of amino acids and are hydrophilic eg. oxytocin and insulin
- amine hormones: derived from single amino acid eg. melatonin, thyroid, dopamine
Acid reflux symptoms, or Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), can increase with the intensity of exercise. And running induced the most reflux. T or F
True
What is the function of upper and lower oesophageal sphincter?
Prevent the entry of air and reflux of gastric contents
Where does the esophagus start and end?
Start at inferior border of cricoid cartilage (C6) and end at cardiac orifice of stomach (T11)
What is the function of the esophagus?
Transport food from pharynx to stomach
Abdomen is divided into which four quadrants?
right upper, left upper, right lower and left lower quadrant
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) include?
Autonomic division regulates internal environment, carries information from the CNS to organs, blood vessels and glands
Somatic division carries information to the CNS from the senses and from the CNS to the skeletal muscles
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) include?
Brain and spinal cord
What are the basic senses of the nervous system?
Sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste
The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism
cell
A material made up of specialized cells to perform a unique function in the body of multicellular organisms
tissue
A type of thin, continuous, protective cell that lines the surface of body found on skin, blood vessel, urinary tract and organs
epithelial cell
What features does a smooth muscle cell have?
- spindled-shaped and have single elongated nuclei
- contain thin (actin) and thick (myosin) contractile filaments
- located in walls of hollow visceral organs (incl. stomach, small and large bowel, rectum, gall bladder and gladder), except heart
Entire content within cell membrane
cytoplasm
Gel-like fluid that acts as a medium for chemical reaction and other organelles to operate within e.g. cell expansion/growth/replication protein synthesis
cytosol
A type of organelle that is made of RNA molecules and proteins, forming a factory for protein synthesis by translating encoded messages from mRNA molecules to synthesize proteins from amino acid
ribosome
A semi-permeable wall to allow passage of nucleic acid and protein, separating chromosomes from the rest of the cell
nuclear membrane
The master control of the cell, containing genes, collections of DNA (arranged in chromosomes, containing blueprint specific allowing for replication of cells)
nucleus
An area within the nucleus not enclosed by a membrane but is just an accumulation of RNA and proteins
nucleolus
a thin semi-permeable membrane consisting of a lipid bilayer and associated proteins, separating and protecting the intracellular environment from the extracellular space
cell membrane
What are phospholipids composed of?
A hydrophilic phosphate group and two hydrophobic fatty acid chains, making up the fundamental structural element in the plasma membrane
What are the other main organelles?
Endoplasmic reticulum: transportation system for protein targetted for outside use
Golgi apparatus: receive protein from ER, further process and sort for transport
Lysosomes: digestive enzyme to digest macromolecules, cell membrane repair, response against foreign substances
Mitochondria: generate the cell’s supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Perioxisomes: help break down long chain fatty acid aka “lipid catabolism”
Microfilaments: aka actin filament to form part of cytoskeleton, extending from nucleus to cell membrane
Microtubules: form cytoskeleton, provide platform for intracellular cell division
What is the musculoskeletal system consisted of?
Muscle (600+): an organ composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers, mostly attached by tendons to bones of the skeleton, categorized into skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles
Tendon (>1000): fibrous connective tissue which attaches muscle to bone, capable of resisting high tensile forces while transmitting forces from muscle to bone
Cartilage: a flexible connective tissue that keeps joint motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the bones in our joints and by cushioning bones against impact
Bones (206): hard, dense, calcified tissue that forms the skeleton of most vertebrates. Main functions include support your body, protect organs and tissues, store calcium and fat and produce blood cells
Joints (300): The area where two bones are attached for the purpose of permitting body parts to move, usually formed of fibrous connective tissue and cartilage
Ligaments (>900): bands of tough, elastic connective tissue that surround a joint to give support and limit the joint’s movement
Joint capsule: a sac-like envelope that surrounds bones of a synovial joint and secretes synovial fluid to lubricate and nourish the joint while acting as a shock absorber
Fascia: a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches to, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs
Bursa: fluid-filled sacs located around a joint that cushion bones when muscles, tendons, or skin rub against the bone, help reducing friction
Meniscus: C-shaped piece of tough, rubbery cartilage that acts as a shock absorber between your shinbone and thighbone
Where is the gastro-oesophageal junction situated?
Left of T11 vertebra
