04a_Memory and Forgetting Flashcards
Memory:
Three Processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Information processing model (Multi-Store):
Three components
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Sensory memory (aka Sensory register)
Brief storage of sensory stimuli (a few seconds)
Echoic Store
Iconic Store
Echoic Store
Sensory memory of auditory information
Iconic Store
Sensory memory of visual information
Short-term memory:
Overview
Limited amount of information
Without rehearsal, info begins to fade within 30sec
Short-term memory:
Encoding
Primarily acoustic
May also be semantic, visual, kinesthetic
Short-term memory:
Primary Memory
Passive memory storage
5-9 distinct units
Larger amounts held by chunking information
Short-term memory:
Working memory
Manipulation and processing of information
Long-term memory:
Converting information from STM
Elaborative rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Relating new information to existing information
Maintenance rehearsal
Simply repeating information with little or no processing
Long-term memory:
Encoding
Mostly semantic
May be encoded visually or acoustically
Long-term memory:
Capacity
Unlimited
Permanent
Long-term memory:
Two timeframes
Recent (secondary) memory
Remote memory
Serial Position Effect
Supports existence of separate short-and long-term stores
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Levels-of-Processing Model:
Overview
Alternative to information processing model
Differences due to depth of processing rather than separate memory stores
Levels-of-Processing Model:
Three Levels of Processing
Structural
Phonemic
Semantic
Which processing level is deepest and produces greatest amount of recall?
Semantic Processing
Long-Term Memory:
Procedural memory
Learning “How”
Cognitive skills
Motor skills and habits
Long-Term Memory:
Declarative memory
Learning “What”
Acquisition of facts and other information
Semantic and Episodic memory
Declarative Memory:
Semantic Memory
General knowledge
Independent of any context
e.g, facts, rules, and concepts
Declarative Memory:
Episodic Memory
Autobiographical memory / personal experience
Flashbulb memories
Type of memory most affected by normal aging
Episodic Memory
Prospective memory
Capacity to remember to do things in the future
Prospective memory:
Older vs Younger Adults
Controlled conditions: Older Adults underperform
Naturalistic settings: Older Adults outperform due to increased likelihood of using external aids
(e.g. lists, calendars, reminders)
Multi-Component Model of Working Memory:
One system and three subsystems
Central executive: attentional control system
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Multi-Component Model of Working Memory:
Central executive
“Attentional Control System”
Primary Component of Working Memory
Central executive:
Three functions
Direct attention to relevant information
Suppress irrelevant information
Coordinate three subsystems
Multi-Component Model of Working Memory:
Phonological loop
Temporarily storing auditory verbal information
Multi-Component Model of Working Memory:
Visuospatial sketchpad
Temporarily storing visual-spatial information
Multi-Component Model of Working Memory:
Episodic buffer
Temporarily integrates auditory, visual, and spatial information
Tasks that are most affected by aging
Tasks that depend on the central executive working memory
Forward Digit Span Task
Phonological loop only
Not affected by aging
Backward Digit Span Task
Relies on phonological loop and central executive
*Due to reliance on central executive, it shows greater age-related decline
Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent):
Overview
Explains how information is transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory
“Bottleneck” theory of attention
Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent):
Three Step Process
Two sensory stimuli maintained in sensory register
Filter selects one stimulus to pass through based on physical characteristics, other is held in temporary buffer
Stimulus that passes through is processed for meaning, and comes into conscious awareness
Filter Theory of Selective Attention (Broadbent):
Purpose of Filter
Prevent overloading of short-term memory capacity
Dichotic Listening Task (Split Span)
Lends support to Broadbent’s Filter Theory
Participants listen to speech sounds presented to each ear simultaneously
Pattern of recall indicates info processing is based on physical characteristics
**on practice exam, task was associated with “selective attention”
Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade):
Two Stages of Visual Information Processing
Pre-attentive
Attentive
Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade):
Pre-attentive stage
Basic features of object are perceived in parallel at automatic or subconscious level
E.g. size, color, orientation
Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade):
Attentive stage
Features are processed serially to form a coherent whole
Feature-Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade):
Illusory Conjunctions
Over time, features may disintegrate and flow freely to recombine illusory ways
Result of memory decay or interference
Factors that affect the Accuracy of Memories
Schemas
Memory Construction
Memory construction
People tend to construct memory by combining elements of new information with existing knowledge
Leads to inaccuracies and distortions
[e.g. faulty eyewitness testimony]
Ebbinghaus’ “forgetting curve”
Most forgetting occurs during the first 4-5 days and then gradually tapers off
Trace Decay Theory
Hypothesized “Engram”
= physiological change in brain produced by learning
Decays over time as a result of disuse
Interference theory:
Overview
Recall of certain information is affected by previous or subsequently acquired information
Retroactive interference
Proactive interference
Interference theory:
Factors that increase likelihood of interference
When old and new information are similar
When task involves recall
When information is unimportant or meaningless
Retroactive interference
New material interferes with the recall of previously learned material
[new material interferes retroactively]
Proactive Interference
When prior learning interferes the learning or recall of subsequent (new) material
[old material interferes proactively]
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
When retrieval cues for information from long-term memory are insufficient or incomplete
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Associated with cue-dependent forgetting
Due to inadequate retrieval cues
Improving Memory:
Encoding specificity
Improved recall improves with increased similarity between encoding method and cues at recall
Improving Memory:
State-dependent learning
Recall improves when learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall
Memory:
Recall v Recognition Performance
Performance is usually better on measures of recognition
Recognition items provide more retrieval cues
Mnemonics:
Four Techniques
Method of Loci
Keyword method
Acronym
Acrostic
Improving Memory:
Keyword Method
Imagery technique useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Moderate levels of arousal maximize efficiency of learning and performance
Extreme low and high levels of arousal decrease efficiency
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
Influence of Task Difficulty
The more difficult the task, the lower the optimal level of arousal
