английский (устная часть) Flashcards
- The Tudors
Henry VII:
Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, is regarded as one of England’s most successful kings. He laid the foundation for the nation-state. His goals were to reunify England, restore royal authority, promote economic growth, and enhance England’s international standing through diplomacy. His marriage to Elizabeth of York united the rival houses of York and Lancaster, solidifying his dynasty. He enacted laws against livery and maintenance, preventing barons from forming private armies, and expanded the role of Justices of the Peace nationwide. Henry VII focused on maintaining peaceful relations with European powers and fostering economic ties, such as the Treaty of Etaples with France and the Treaty of Medina del Campo with Spain.
Henry VIII:
Henry VIII is often overshadowed by his six marriages. He embodied the Renaissance man, with a court known for scholarly and artistic innovation. Early in his reign, he invaded France and defeated Scottish forces. He broke from the Roman Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England and increasing royal authority. The Reformation Parliament established the Church of England with Henry as its Supreme Head, leading to the dissolution of monasteries and confiscation of church property. Despite favoring Catholic rituals, Henry’s reforms faced minimal resistance, with the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 being the only significant opposition. Under the third Act of Succession, Henry’s son Edward VI inherited the throne, with his sisters Mary and Elizabeth next in line.
Mary I and Elizabeth I:
Mary I, a Catholic, married Prince Philip of Spain and persecuted Protestants during her reign. Elizabeth I established the Church of England, passing the Act of Supremacy. Known as the “Virgin Queen,” she ruled for forty years, ensuring prosperity and stability despite threats from Catholics and other plots. Elizabeth’s reign is called the Golden Age due to its cultural, economic, and political achievements.
Tudor Government:
The Tudor government featured three key institutions: the Monarch, the Privy Council, and Parliament. Henry VII established the Committee of the Privy Council, a precursor to the modern cabinet. Local administration was vital, with councils governing specific regions and Justices of the Peace and sheriffs enforcing laws. Courts, including the Court of the Star Chamber and various revenue courts, played a crucial role in administration. The dissolution of monasteries during the Reformation provided significant income for the crown, managed by revenue courts established under Henry VIII. Parliament, divided into the House of Lords and the House of Commons, continued to pass laws, advise the monarch, and grant money. Monarchs could bypass Parliament with Royal Proclamations.
Tudor Foreign Policy:
Tudor foreign policy focused on Ireland and Scotland. Henry VIII extended royal authority in Ireland and continued the Reformation. Elizabeth I faced challenges from Catholic powers and supported Protestant rebels in Scotland, leading to the Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560. Her fleets, led by figures like Sir Francis Drake, conducted raids against Spanish ships, with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 being a significant propaganda victory. Elizabeth supported Protestant rebels in the Netherlands and France against Spain, leading to the Anglo-Spanish War. Diplomatic relations were maintained with Russia, Morocco, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan, focusing on trade.
Colonization of America: The colonization of North America began under Elizabeth, with the first permanent settlement established in Jamestown in 1607. Colonists sought economic opportunities and religious freedom, with the Puritans founding Plymouth in 1620.
2 The Stuarts
James I:
Elizabeth I died without an heir, leading to James VI of Scotland becoming James I of England, uniting the crowns. His reign saw the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605, led by Guy Fawkes. James imposed stricter laws on Catholics and faced financial struggles and conflicts with Parliament due to his belief in the divine right of kings and lavish spending.
Charles I:
Charles I continued his father’s contentious policies, especially regarding taxation without Parliament’s consent. The Petition of Right in 1628 sought to limit his power, leading him to rule without Parliament for eleven years. Financial crises forced him to summon Parliament, eventually leading to the Civil War (1642-1646). The Roundheads supported Parliament, and the Cavaliers backed the king. Charles was defeated, tried for treason, and executed in 1649.
The Interregnum:
After Charles I’s execution, the Interregnum began, marked by the Commonwealth and the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell ruled with the Rump Parliament, which was unpopular due to strict Puritan laws. He dissolved it in 1653 and became Lord Protector. After Cromwell’s death, his son Richard was unable to govern, leading to the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.
Charles II:
Charles II was invited to restore the monarchy in 1660. His reign saw a relaxation from Puritan austerity, revival of theater, sports, and a splendid royal court. The Test Acts (1673-1678) imposed civil disabilities on Catholics and Nonconformists. The Exclusion Crisis divided Parliament into Whigs, who supported parliamentary power, and Tories, who supported a strong monarchy. This conflict led to England’s two-party system.
James II and the Glorious Revolution:
James II, a Catholic, inherited the throne despite the Test Act. His support for Catholicism and the birth of his son led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, with William of Orange invading and James II fleeing. William III and Mary II, James’s Protestant daughter, took the throne. The 1689 Bill of Rights established parliamentary control and restricted the monarch’s powers.
Queen Anne:
Queen Anne, the last Stuart monarch, ascended in 1702. The 1701 Act of Settlement ensured the monarchy remained Protestant, designating Sophia of Hanover as heir. The 1707 Act of Union formally unified England and Scotland into Great Britain.
Stuart Era Events:
The Stuart era saw significant events: the Gunpowder Plot, civil and naval wars, a king’s execution, a republic, the Glorious Revolution, a great plague, and the Great Fire of London. Public transport, newspapers, and coffee houses became central to business and social life. Many English emigrated to America, and the British Empire expanded, bringing economic gains from luxury goods and the slave trade. The era’s significant event was the 1707 Act of Union, formally unifying England and Scotland.
- The 19th century – the Victorian Era
The Victorian era in Britain is usually characterized as a long period of peace, known as the Pax Britannica. Britain’s focus was on economic development and imperial expansion, while domestic policy embraced liberalism. From the late 18th century, political movements sought parliamentary reform, such as the London Corresponding Society, inspired by Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man. The 1832 Reform Bill addressed outdated constituency representation, granting voting rights to middle-class men but excluding the working class, leading to ongoing social movements.
The major political parties, Whigs and Tories, evolved into Liberals and Conservatives. Key reformist leaders included Earl Grey, Lord Melbourne, Robert Peel, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, and William Gladstone. In 1838, the People’s Charter demanded universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and equal constituencies. Though largely unsuccessful initially, it laid the groundwork for future suffrage movements.
The industrial revolution had mixed social impacts. The demand for cheap labor led to women and children working long hours. The government responded with Factory Acts, starting in 1819, to limit child and women’s labor, culminating in the 1878 act defining factories as places with machinery. Workers’ living conditions improved by the late 19th century, with shorter workdays, paid holidays, and weekends. New Model Unions, formed in the 1850s, focused on negotiation over strikes. The Gas Workers and General Labourers Union in 1889 was the first of many trade unions, leading to the establishment of the Labour Party. The 1867 Royal Commission gave trade unions legal status, benefiting both employers and employees.
Queen Victoria, granddaughter of George III, ascended the throne at 18 and reigned for nearly 64 years. She became a symbol of personal morality and the Victorian era. Initially advised by Whig leader Lord Melbourne, she later relied on her husband, Prince Albert. Their harmonious family life and public visibility boosted her popularity. After Albert’s death, she mourned deeply, leading to a decline in public appearances and popularity, which she later regained in the 1880s with rising imperial sentiment. Her strategic marriages of her children into European royal families earned her the nickname “Mother of Europe.”
Victoria’s era saw political, economic, and social reforms. She cooperated with many governments and prime ministers, favoring Conservatives like Benjamin Disraeli, though she disliked Lord Palmerston. Britain maintained stability and peace in the 19th century, focusing on balancing power and protecting free trade to support its vast empire. The country fought the Crimean War against Russia in 1854 to protect trade routes to India. After suppressing the Indian Mutiny in 1857, Victoria became Empress of India. Britain expanded its territories in Africa and Asia but faced competition from rising powers like Germany and the USA, signaling a decline in its global dominance by century’s end.
From the military point of view, the 19th century was a relatively stabile and peaceful period for Britain. The main aims of Britain in the foreign policy were to keep the balance of power and to protect a free trade. During the 19th century, Britain had built a large empire, and became the world’s leading superpower. The most important territories, governed by the British crown, were South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Britain got involved only once into the war against another European power - the Crimean war against Russia in 1854. In the last decades of the 19th century Britain took control of large areas in Africa (Zimbabwe, Malawi, Kenya, Zambia, Nigeria), and also Egypt and Sudan. By the end of the 19th century it was obvious that the international position of Britain is decreasing, and it had to look for an ally in among European nations.
- The Twentieth century UK, USA
- Fighting for Independence
- Civil War (USA)
- Economic Development of USA
- Development of foreign relations and diplomacy in USA
- Political System of the USA (The US Constitution, Federalism, Separation of powers and
checks and balances, two party system)
- Political system of GB (major figures, form of the Government, Constitution,
Legislative branch - Houses of Parliament, Political parties, Monarchy)
- Foreign policy of UK – Security, Immigration, UK and China, UK and US
- Making of a nation, American Values and Belief, Americanisation and Regionalism
- The US - a land of minorities, Martin Luther King.
- Enduring features of international relations – anarchy, order, constraint on state behavior.
- The search for global order – Moral Imperatives and the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
