Yr2 Research methods Flashcards
What are descriptive statistics?
summary statistics that identify trends and analyse sets of data
What are the 3 types of descriptive stats?
measures of central tendency
measures of dispersion
graphs and tables
What is an inference?
a reasonable conclusion that can be drawn from information presented
What is inferential stats?
the use of stats tests that tell whether or not the differences/ relationships that have been found are statistically significant or not
helps decide which hypothesis to accept = alternative/ null
What is a statistically significant result?
a statistically significant result is one that is unlikely to have occured by chance = reject the null hypothesis
Is P<0.01 more or less stringent?
more stringent = testing at a harsher probability level
What is probability?
the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen
Why is a P=0.05 level of significance used?
it represents a reasonable balancing point between the chances of making a type 1 or type 2 error
What is a Type 1 error?
occurs when a null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true = a less stringent level of significance was used
What is a Type 2 error?
when a null hypothesis is accepted when it is in fact false = a more stringent level of significance was used
What factors affect the choice of stats test?
the type of data
the type of research design
is it a parametric test
What are the 3 levels of measurement?
nominal
ordinal
interval
What is nominal data?
the data is in separate categories
What is ordinal data?
data is ordered in some way but there is not equal measurement between score , they are simply numbers
What is interval data?
data is measured uing units of equal measurement
What are related designs?
matched pairs and repeated measures
What is an unrelated design?
independant measures
What is an experiment?
testing for a difference between the samples of data
What is a correlation?
a test that detects relationships in samples of paired data
Why are parametric tests more powerful than non-parametric tests?
they are better at detecting significant differences/relationships = uses means and SD rather than rank-ordring and nominal data
What criteria must be met to use a parametric test?
the level of measurement must be interval
data comes from a population that has a normal distribution
the variances of the 2 samples are similar
How do you identify which stats test was used?
- is it looking for a difference or relationship?
- unrelated or related data?
- nominal, ordinal or interval data?
Name all the stats tests.
chi squared
sign test
mann-whitney
wilcoxon
spearman’s rho
unrelated t test
related t test
pearson’s r test
What is the criteria for a chi squared?
test of difference
unrelated data
nominal data
What is the criteria for a sign test?
test of difference
related data
nominal data
What is the criteria for a Mann-Whitney?
test of difference
unrelated data
ordinal data
What is the criteria for a Wilcoxon?
test of difference
related data
ordinal data
What is the criteria for a Spearman’s rho?
test or correlation
related data
ordinal data
What is the criteria for a unrelated t test?
test of difference
unrelated data
interval data
What is the criteria for a related t test?
test of difference
related data
interval data
What is the criteria for a pearson’s r test?
test of correlation
related data
interval data
How do you find the calculated value of T for a Wilcoxon test?
find the rank of differences - if not done for you
the less frequent sign - add up the ranks
What is reliability?
how consistent the findings from an investigation of measuring device are
What are the 2 ways of assessing reliability?
Test-retest method
inter-(observer/rater/observer) reliability
What type of methods is the test-retest used for?
questionaires
psych tests/ experiments
interviews
What does inter-rater reliability assess the reliability of?
content analysis
How is a test-retest carried out?
assess the same person using the same testing method on 2 separate occassions
2 sets of results are correlated and if the correlation coefficient is at least +0.8 then the results are reliable
What is the method of inter-observer reliability as a way of assessing reliability?
the same event is being observed by 2 observers at the same time but independently of each other
data is correlated, if correlation coefficient is at least +0.8 then it is assumed that the behavioural categories were reliable
How can you improve the reliability of questionaires?
some questions may need to be taken out or rewritten
remove ambiguous/ complex Qs
change open Qs to closed
How can you improve the reliability of interviews?
better training for interviewers
use structured
use the same interviewer
How can you improve the reliability of experiments?
high levels of control = lab expts are better
ensure replication to check for correlations b/w repeats
How can you improve the reliability of observations?
behavioural categories are properly operationalised - they are measurable, do not overlapp and all behaviour is covered on the checklist
What is validity?
the extent to which the results of something are legitimate = whether the results represent what is true this includes internal and external validity
What is internal validity?
the researcher has managed to measure what was intented to be measured as the results are bc of the manipulation of the IV
What is external validity?
the extent to which findings can be generalised outside the situation in which it was found = made up of temporal, pop and eco validity
What is ecological validity?
if the results are generalisable from the setting in which they were found to other settings
What is population validity?
if the results are generalisable to other people, other than those used in the study
What is temporal validity?
if the results are generalisable to other times
What are the 2 ways of assessing validity?
face validity and concurrent validity
What is face validity?
looking at whether the test, scale or measure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure
What is concurrent validity?
looking at the results of the test and comparing them (by correlation) to the results of another recognised and well established test
+0.8 correlation = concurrent validity
How can the validity of experiments be improved?
using a control group to compare results = indicates the effects due to the IV
standadisation = reduces investigator effects
single/double blind procedures = reduced DC and investigator effects
How can you improve the validity of questionaires?
use a lie scale to help control social desiribility bias
telling ps answers are annonymous
How can you improve the validity of obervations?
covert and natural obvs = higher eco valid
clear behavioural categories
How can you improve the validity of case studies and interviews?
Triangulation
What is Triangulation?
results of the interview or case study are combined with other sources of evidence - obvs, interviews with family
What is content analysis?
research technique that enables indirect study of behaviour by examining qualitative data and turning it into quantitative data to test for significance
What are codes?
common behaviours seen in qualitative data for content analysis
What is the method of content analysis?
- researcher looks at some of the material to be analysed
- decide on codes to analyse the data
- read through all material and analyse each one at a time applying the coding system - tally everytime a code appears
- analyse findings quantitatively - stats tests, hypothesis testing
What are the 7 features of science?
empirical method
objectivity
replcability
theory construction
hypothesis testing
falsifiability
paradigms and paradigm shifts
What is an empirical method?
research methods that are based on the gethering of evidence from direct obvs or testing
Why is having an empirical method important?
without it you can’t know if the findings are true or not so there is no further understanding due to no evidence
What is objectivity?
data that is unaffected by beliefs and opinions, it is based on observable and measurable data
What is the importance of objectivity?
findings are based on facts to be seen as credible and scientific - they are to be taken seriously
What is replicablity?
repeating the study with diff ps and context to test reliability of findings
What is the importance of replicability?
improves confidence in results
prevents scientific fraud
room for generalisability
What is a theory?
a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts
What is the the importance of theory construction?
allows for hypothesis testing
improves scientific understanding
What is hypothesis testing?
modifying theories by aiming to falsify the theory
What is the importance of hypothesis testing?
gain knowledge and understanding
What is falsifiability?
all of testing of theories is an attempt to prove it false, a theory is accepted until it is proven false
What does unfalsifiable mean?
it cannot be proven false
What is a paradigm?
a set of shared assumptions and methods within a scientific discipline
Who came up with paradigms?
Kuhn
What is a paradigm shift?
a significant change in the unifying theory within a scientific discipline
Why is psychology classed as a pre-science?
has lots of diff approaches which has diff beliefs and methods = doesnt have 1 agreed paradigm
What is thematic analysis?
a theme is any idea that is recurrent
they are more descriptive than codes in content analysis
the themes can then be developed into broader categories
How should the psychological report be written (what tense and pov)?
past tense and 3rd person
apart from hypothesis and aim - future tense
What are all the sections of a psychological report?
Title
contents page
abstract
introduction
method
Results
discussion
references
appendices
To catch an incredibily magical rainbow, dance radiantly always
What is the purpose of a title to a psychological report?
clearly outlines the study
What is the purpose of a contents page to a psychological report?
for a reader to easily find each section of the report
What is the purpose of an abstract to a psychological report?
provides an overview of the study so you dont need to read the whole report
it is a breif summary of the entire investigation
What is included in an abstract?
aim and main background study
participants and sampling tech
procedure
results
conclusion, implications and suggestions for future research
What is the purpose of an introduction to a psychological report?
gives all the background research and details relevant theories and concepts that are related to the current study
What does the introduction to a psychological report include?
all background research
aim
hypothesis and null hypothesis
relevant theories and concepts
What is the purpose of a methods section to a psychological report?
for someone to be able to replicate your study exactly
What are the 3 sub-sections of a methods section in a report?
design
participants and investigators
apparatus and materials
procedure
What is included in a design sub-section of the methods section of a report?
research method
research design
variables
controls
ethics
What is included in a participants and investigators sub-section of the methods section of a report?
investigators - just you or a small group? names?
number of participants and details - age, ender, educational background, ensure they remain annonymous
sampling procedure
number in each cond and how they were allocated
What is included in a apparatus sub-section of the methods section of a report?
a list of everything you used in your investigation
What is included in a procedure sub-section of the methods section of a report?
describes how thr study was carried out start to finish
pilot studies
design of stimulus material
sampling and participants
where the study took place
method
how the data was used
mention consent and debriefs
What is the purpose of a results section to a psychological report?
to summarise the key findings from the investigation
What is included in the results section of a report?
descriptive stats = mean, mode etc
inferential stats = stats test used and why?
what the data shows related to the hypothesis
table of results and graphs
What is the purpose of a discussion section to a psychological report?
to review the findings and compare them to existing research
it assesses the quality of the study and makes suggestions for further future research
What are the 3 sub-sections to a disccussion section of a report?
explaination of findings
limitations and modifications
implications and suggestions for furture research
What is included in the explaination of findings sub-section of a disccussion section of a report?
relate the findings to the hypothesis
additional findings
what did you find
why?
what does it mean?
What is included in the implications and applications sub-section of a disccussion section of a report?
implications and applications of the research for future research
how relevant are the findings to the real world?
practical apps?
suggest ideas for future research
What is included in the limitations and modifications sub-section of a disccussion section of a report?
strengehts
weakenesses
modifications
What is the purpose of a references section to a psychological report?
avoids plagerism
How do you write a refernce?
Author, date, title, place of publication, publisher
name is : surname, initial
What is the purpose of an appendices section to a psychological report?
replicatio for other researchers
What does the appendices section of a report include?
raw data
stats calculations
stimulus material
standardised instructions
What does a consent form need to include?
ask the participant to take part
what they will be doing in the study
ethics - confidentiality and withdrawal
signature space
What should standardised instructions include?
what they will be doing
reminder of ethics - confidential, withdrawal
do you understand? any questions?
What should s debrief of a study include?
the topic of the study
what was measured
why the study was done - previous research
ethics - confidentiality and withdrawal
Do you wish to withdraw?
results of study - contact info
are you ok with this?
thanks for taking part
What are the strengths of content analysis?
uses original qualitative data which is rich in detail = provides external validity
trends and patterns can emerge and be identified = can be easily compared which brings reliability
can investigate topics that are not appropriate due to ethical concerns = no need to gain consent, researchers have choice over what material they access and how they use it
What are the issues with content analysis?
uses material that may have been produced decades ago = lack of temporal validity
researcher only has access to the qualitative data and doesnt know the context, this could lead to the researcher making assumptions, affecting validity
some of the original data is lost = it cannot include context in terms of feelings and emotions, could affect validity and the true meaning of the data is not represented in the findings
What are the strengths of thematic analysis?
qualitative data = provides insight on how people think, feel and experience
researcher can quote directly from the original material = they are able to add context to their findings making them more subjective
What are the issues with thematic analysis?
time-consuming - texts need to be analysed repeatedly to identify and categorise themes
confirmation bias = researchers may overlook themes that do not align with their preconcieved ideas and only focus on those that support what they are looking for
