Approaches Flashcards
Who is wundt and what did he do for psychology?
he established the first lab dedictaed to psychology
separated psych from philosophy
came up with introspection and structuralism
‘father of psych’
what is introspection?
the process of a person looking into their own mental experiences and reporting their own conscious experience
What is structuralism?
breaking down mental processes into simple components like the senses
What was wundt’s study for introspection?
highly trained assistants given a stimulus - ticking metronome
they would reflect on experience - thoughts, feelings, senses
this was standardised
What is the behaviourist approach?
a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
who rejected introspection in the behaviourist approach?
watson
why did watson reject introspection?
it involved too many vague and immeasurable concepts
What do behaviourists assume about learning?
learning takes place due to stimulus-response reactions
occurs due to classical conditioning or operant conditioning
it occurs the same way in all species - generalise from animal studies
What do behaviourists assume about behaviour?
only behaviour that is obsvered and measured should be studied - mental processes are not important
behaviour should be studied in a scientific way
What does the behaviourist approach say we are born as?
a blank state - all behaviour is learned
Who researched classical conditioning?
pavlov
what was pavlov’s dog study?
conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was presented with food repeatedly
What are the 2 parts of the learning approach?
the behaviourist approach
socail learning theory
What was the unconditioned stimulus in pavlovs study?
the food
what was the unconditioned response in pavlovs study?
salivation
What was rhe neurtal stimulus and conditioned stimulus in pavlovs study?
the bell
who researched operant conditioning?
skinner
in the behaviourist approach is the learning an active or passive process?
passive
What was skinner’s box study?
placed a hungry rat in a box - skinner box
press a lever = food
or press a lever = stops electric shocks
rats learned to press the lever for these consequences and would repeat the action
What is the scientific credibility of the behaviourist approach?
it was able to bring the methods of natural sciences into psychology
focuses on the measurement of obsvervale behaviour in a highly controlled lab setting
What is the real-life application of the behaviourist approach?
the token economy in institutions = rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privilages
it is a way of maintaing phobias, addictions and OCD = developed therapies and research
What does environmental determinism mean in the behaviourist approach?
behaviour is determined by the environment
we do not have free will and no conscious insight of our behaviours
How is the behaviourist approach oversimplified?
it reduces the behaviour to simple components so it may have ignored on important influence on learning
it ignored thoughts and mind-processing
learning is more complex
What does mechanistic view mean?
behaviour is a passive process and ignores free will
What are the strengths of Wundt’s research?
used controlled methods - replicable
psychology wouldn’t be where it is = recognised it as a science
helped develop lab experiments
What are the issues with Wundt’s reseach?
introspection = subjective
qualatative data = self-report methods, bias, cannot verify results, can be distorded
structionalist = behaviour cannot be obsvered
findings are not replicable so not reliable
there is a delay with the concisous experience and the reporting = forgetting, interference
Who proposed the social learning theory?
Bandura
What does the social learning theory assume about learning?
it takes place in a social context
occurs via observation of a model and the rewatds/punishment they recieve
other people act as models - characteristics increase the likelihood of imitation
learning and performance are not the same - mediational factors produce behaviour
What is imitation?
copying the behaviour of others
What is identification?
when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the model
What is modelling?
the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
What is vicarious reinforcement?
reinforcemtn is not directly experinced but is obsvered being given to someone else
What characteristics of a model increase the likelihood of imitation and identification?
same sex
fame
status
What are mediational factors?
mental factors that mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired
What are the 4 mediating factors?
Attention
Retention
reproduction (imitation)
motivation
What two mediating factors are part of learning?
attention and retention
What two mediating factors are part of performance?
reproduction and motivation
What is attention mediating factor?
someone can only reproduce behaviour accurately if they notice the model’s behaviour
What is retention mediating factor?
to imitate (model) the behaviour it be remembered and transferred into the LTM, this enables the behaviour to be retrieved
What is reproduction in the mediating factors?
the observer must process the physical capabilities required to reproduce the modelled behaviour
refered to as ‘motor reproduction’
What is motivation mediating factor?
the motivation to carry out the imitation is determined by whether the behaviour is rewarded or punished
What study supports the social learning theory?
Bandura’s bobo doll
What was bandura’s bobo doll study?
72 nursery school children, 3 conditions:
1. saw an adult hitting, punching and kicking a bobo doll
2. saw an adult playing non-aggressively with a bobo doll
3. control saw nothing
those in 1 was aggressive
imitation was more likely if adult was the same sex
What was bandura’s second study for vicarious reinforcement?
saw adult behaving aggressively towards bobo doll
1. saw adult model being rewarded
2. saw adult model being punished
3. control - no consequence
group 1 children showed a lot more aggression
What is patterson et al study on role models?
role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour
parents are most important role models
through questionaires and surveys
found that very aggressive children were raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little postitive feedback
What is the scientific crediblity of the social learning approach?
it used experimental and standardiesed methods in lab settings
What are the practical applications of the social learning theory?
patterson
parents are trained to model appropriate behaviour to their children and reward good behaviour = aggression drops
has wider academic credibility for the important role parents play in modelling
How does the social learning theory account for cultural differences in behaviour?
behaviours are learnt due to our social context
in some cultures, aggression is not valued and rarely displayed
different behaviours emerged over time from culture to culture
How is the social learning theory less deterministic than the behaviourist approach?
we are not merely influenced by our envrionment, we also exert an influence upon it
What are the issues with the social learning theory?
ignored bio factors
mediating cognitive factors are hard to measure
over-relaince on lab studies
ethical issues
supporting evidence is artifical
What was found on a biological factor influencing aggression?
boys were more aggressive due to higher levels of testosterone
How is the social learning theory different from behaviourism?
learner has an active role in learning
theres a difference between acquisition and performance
behaviours can become fixed
reinforcement is an indirect process
SLT only involves the measurement of natural behaviour - uses humans
What does bandura call fixed behaviours?
internalised
How does a behaviour become fixed?
if they have been imitated and reinforced enough
What are all the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
the mind actively processes information that comes in through different senses
cognitive processes mediate between stimulus and response
can understand why people behave the way they do
processing is similar to a computer
mental processes can be studied objectively and scientifically
What are internal mental processes?
private operations of the mind like attention and memory that mediate between stimulus and response
What is inference?
the process where cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
how can cognitive psychologists study cognitive processes?
experiments
cognitive neuropsychology
cognitive neuroscience
computer cognitive science
What is computer cognitive science?
developing computer models to model human processing
What is a schema?
packages of ideas and information developed through experience
What schema are babies born with?
simple motor schema - for innate behaviours like sucking or grasping
What is the function of a shcema?
enables us to process info quicky and facilitate a short-cut to processing
What do schema’s prevent?
from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
What is an issue with schemas?
they can distort our interpretation of snesory info and cause preceptual errors
What is the information processing approach?
information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrevial
What application do models have in psych?
useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or artificial intelligence
What is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of brain structures that influence cognitive processes
What did Broca find on the frontal lobe?
damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permenently impair speech production - known as broca’s area
What did Tulving find on different brain areas and memory?
different types of LTM were likely located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal lobe
What are some applications of cognitive neuroscience?
court-cases
origins of mental disorders
brain imaging techs - fMRI and PET scans
how has cognitive neuroscience been useful in courts?
when people feel guilty, several brain regions are active and they can scan brains to see if people are lying
What is the advantage of models in psych?
can use scientific procedures and test theories
helps us understand mental processes
development of AI and robots
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
can understand mental processes that are not directly observable
brain imaging development
models
cognitive neuroscience discoveries
soft determinism
What is soft determinism?
a flexible approach - we have free will but not complete free will, there is still another factor in control
What does the cognitive approach ignore?
biology and the influence of genes
induvidual and personality differences
the influence of human characteristics - emotion and motivation
What are the issues with the cognitive approach?
mechanistic reductionism = ignores a lot of factors
inference is not objecttive - low internal validity
ignores:
bio factors and genes
human characteristics like motivation and emotion (loftus and memory)
emotions influence on cognitie processes
What is the biological approach?
it emphasises the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour
what are the practical applications of the bio approach?
helped in the development of brain scanning
psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders
What are genes?
they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA codes for the physical and psychological features of an organism
what is neurochemistry?
relates to the chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
what is a genotype?
the particular set of genes a person possesses
What is a phenotype?
the way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
What is evolution?
the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
What does the bio approach assume about genetics?
our genetic make-up and genetic inheritance strongly influence human behaviour
What two assumptions does the bio approach make about neurochemistry?
understanding of brain structures and functions explain both behaviour and thought
chemical processes in the brain are responsible for psychological functioning - inbalances can cause disorders
What does the bio approach assume about evolution?
humans have evolved biologically and have more in common than other animals
Why are twin studies used in the bio approach?
used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates
What are concordance rates?
the likelihood to which if one twin has a condition, the other also has it
How much DNA do each type of twin share?
Mono = 100%
Di = 50% - same as regular siblings
What other type of factor can influence characteristics of an organism?
environmental
What is Phenylketonuria (PKU)?
a rare genetic disorder where you are unable to digest proteins properly, detected by the heel prick test on babies
untreated = severe learning difficulties
What does PKU show about genetype and phenotype?
a genotype predisposes people to disorders but can be over-ridden by environmental intervention
who developed natural selection?
charles darwin
What is natural selection?
any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an induvidual’s survival will continue in future generations
What behaviours do we have due to evolution and their use?
memory - advantages for hunting
attachment - Bowlby, safety
relationships - sexual jealousy = prevents infidelity
phobias - avoid dangers
What are neurotransmitters?
brain chemicals that communitcate info throughout our body and brain
What are neurons?
nerve cells that transmit signals electrically and chemically, allows communication in the nervous system
What is an excitatory NT?
makes the adjacent nerve cell more likely to fire
What is an Inhibatory NT?
makes the adjacent nerve cell less likely to fire
What is summation?
an electrical impulse in a neuron will trigger the release of both inhib and excit NT
How do you calculate the net potential?
sum of excit NT - sum of inhib NT = net potential
What are the strengths of the bio approach?
uses scientific methods - effective, scanning techs are highly accurate and reliable
real-life applications
lots of supporting evidence
What are the issues with the bio approach?
deterministic view - no free will
cannot separate nature from nurture
conclusions cannot be made = assumptions are made
What is the issue of the bio approach in terms of the legal system?
offenders are legally and morally responsible for their behaviour = the appoarch diminishes the extent that we can be held responsible
Why cant nature and nurture be separted in twin and family studies?
Co-V = they experience similar environments
DZ twins share the same amount of DNA to normal siblings = however, DZ twins have higher concordance rates
What happened to Phineas Gage?
a metal rod damaged his left frontal lobe which caused a change in personality - more aggressive and anti-social
What does Phineas Gage show about the brain structure?
the left frontal lobe is repsonsible for emotions and decision-making
What was Nesdat’s study on OCD in twins?
found concordance rates for OCD in twins
MZ = 68%
DZ = 31%
Who came up with the psychodynamic approach?
sigmund freud
What is the psychodynamic approach?
it describes the different forces which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
our behaviour, thoughts and feelings are determined by unconscious forces - not aware
emphasises the role of nature and nurture
doesnt align with the scientific method
What are the 3 structures of the mind?
unconscious, preconscious and conscious
What is your unconscious?
the storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence behaviour and personality, contains disturbing memories that have been repressed or forgotten
What is the preconscious?
its under the surface of the conscious mind, contains thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of through our dreams or slips of the tongue
What are slips of the tongue?
parapraxes - calling your teacher mum/dad
What are the 3 structures of personality?
ID, Ego and superego
What is the ID?
the primitive part of personality, operates on the pleasure principle, it is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts since birth
responsible for selfish/bad behaviour
What is the ego?
works on the reality principle, it mediates between the ID and superego using defence mechanisms, develops at 2yrs old
What is the superego?
internalised sense of right and wrong, works on the morality principle, represents moral standards of child’s same sex parent and punishes ego for wrong doing
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
oral stage
anal stage
phallic stage
latency stage
genital stage
When does the superego develop?
the phallic stage
What is the oral stage?
0-1yrs = pleasure derived in the mouth
What are the possible causes of fixation for the oral stage?
early weaning
deprivation of love or food
What are the results of fixation in the oral stage?
biting nails
smoking
sarcasm
What does fixation mean?
where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries behaviours and conflicts associated with the stage they are in into adult life
What is anal stage?
1-3yrs = pleasure derived in the anus
What are the possible causes of fixation of the anal stage?
harsh toilet training
lax toilet training
What are the results of fixation for the anal stage?
obsessiveness
tidiness/ messy
perfectionist
What is the phallic stage?
3-6yrs = pleasure derived in the genital area
What are the possible causes of fixation in the phallic stage?
no father figure
very dominant mother
What are the resultss of fixation in the phallic stage?
meaness
self-obssession
envy
sexual anxiety
What is the latency stage?
6-11yrs = early conflicts become repressed, girls and boys dont spend much time together
When do children experince the oedipus/electra complex?
phallic stage
What is the genital stage?
11yrs+ = sexual desires become conscious
What is the fixation for the genital stage?
diffuculty forming heterosexual relationships
What are conflicts?
each stage is marked by a conflict which must be resolved to progress to the next stage and avoid fixation
What is the oedipus complex?
boys lust for their mums and and want to harm their fathers, they have a fear that their dad will castrate them
What is the electra complex?
girls have incestuous desires for their father and experience penis envy, they see their mother as a threat
over time, this desire becomes a desire for a baby
What are defence mechanisms?
unconscious methods that prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas
What is an issue with defence mechanisms?
they distort reality so are not psychologically healthy in the long-term
What is repression?
forcing a distressing memory out of the mind
What is denial?
refusal to acknowlegde some aspect of reality despite proof
What is displacement?
transferring feelings from a true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
What is the case study of little hans?
4yrs old - little hans witnessed a harse collapsing = developed a phobia of horses and their large genitalia
Freud said that the horse was a symbol for his father - little hans had oediupus complex
How does the psychodynamic approach have explanatory power?
it was influential and dominated psych for 1st half of 20th century
it brought attention to the connection between experiences and childhood
explains personality development, moral development and gender
What is the practical application of the psychodynamic approach?
psychotherapies and psychoanalysis = accesses the unconscious by hypnosis and dream analysis
can be inappropriate for serious mental disorders
what is the issue of the psychodynamic approach using case studies?
it is not generalisable and freud got the evidence from little hans’s father who was aware of the oedipus complex - not reliable,bias
What is the issue Karl popper addressed on the psycodynamic approach?
that the approach is untestable as it does not meet scientific citerion of falsification
it is a pseudoscience - fake science
How does the psychodynamic approach have intuitive appeal?
most people can relate to similar experiences in their lives that the approach assumes
What does it mean that the psychodynamic approach is psychic deterministic?
claims everything is determined by unconscious forces which are out of our control and denys us free will
What is a strength of defence mechanisms explaining human behaviour?
Intuitive appeal
Use examples - forgetting traumatic events
What is the weakness with defence mechanisms explaining human behaviour?
Other factors may influence
Lack of testability
Subjective
What is the humanistic approach?
an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
What is free will?
the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by bio factors or external forces
What does it mean that humans are active agents?
we have the ability to determine our own development
What needs to be in place for free will to work?
free will should be constrained by morals, laws, family values and others needs
Why did rogers and maslow reject scientific models?
humans are active agents and we are all unique and psych should be concerned with the study of subjective experience
What is the humanistic approach also reffered to as?
the person-centred approach
What does client-centred therapy refer to their patients as?
clients
What is self-actualisation?
the innate desired to grow psychologically and fufill one’s potential
What is maslows hierachy of needs?
a model for understanding the motivations for human behaviour
What is the order of maslows hierachy of needs? (bottom to top)
self-actualisation
self esteem
love/belonging
safety
physiological
What are the 4 lower needs of self actualisation called?
deficiency needs
How to induviduals acheive self-actualisation according to maslows hierachy of needs?
they must have their needs met in all the defiency needs, lower levels of the hierachy before they can move up a level and acheieve self-acc
What did Rogers say an induvidual needs for self growth?
an induvidual’s concept of self must be incongruence with their ideal self
What are the 3 parts to self-concept?
self-image
ideal self
self-esteem
What is congruence?
maintaining a reasonable consistency between self-image and ideal self, these concepts will overlap
What is incongruence?
a greater gap between actual self and ideal self can lead to low self worth and maladjustment
What therapy did rogers develop?
client-centred therapy
What did rogers suggest is a reason for incongruence?
a lack of unconditional positive regard as a child can have an affect in adulthood like low self-esteem
What is positive self-regard?
when a person is accepted for who they are or what they do by significant others, the love from others is unconditional
What is conditions of worth?
conditions that a person has from significant others that need to be met to be loved and accepted
What is an example of conditions of worth?
a parent setting a boundary on their love for their child
this is storing up psychological problems for the child in the future
What is client-centred therapy?
clients solved their own problems in constructive ways and work towards self acc
What characteristics should a good therapist have?
empathy
genuiueness
unconditional positive regard
acceptance and understanding
What are the aims of client-centred therapy?
increase feelings of self-worth
decrease iincongruence
aids in client becoming fully functioning
What application does the humanistic app have for depression?
depression - low self-esteem can be a result of a lack of positive self regard
What application does the humanistic app have for agression?
the induvidual is not fully functioning at a psychological level which blocks personal growth
What are the good things about the humanistic app?
non-reductionist
positive app supporting free will
holistic approach
How is the humanistic approach non-reductionist?
it rejects any attempt to break up behaviour into smaller components
may have more validity
How does the humanistic app support free will?
humans are self-determining and active agents
promotes a positive condition of human experiences
people are free to work towards their own development
How is the humanistic app a holistic approach?
it must consider the whole person’s subjective experience
considers meaningful human behaviour within its real life context
What are the issues with the humanistic approach?
limited application
untestable concepts
cultural bias
why does the humanistic approach have limited application?
it has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology
it lacks sound-base evidence because its subjective
Why is the humanistic approach untestable?
contains vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test
it is an anti-scientific app
problematic under exprt. conditions
How is the humanistic approach culturally biased?
induvidual freedom, autonomy and personal growth = associated with induvidualist cultures
collectivists emphasisies the needs of the group
What other role other than a short-cut to processing do schemas provide?
Enable us to make predictions based on our past experiences
Why do schemas distort perceptions?
Interpretation is influenced by expectations
What are real-life issues of schemas?
EWT - not accurate recall of events but what we expected to happen
Depression - develop negative schemas about ourselves, becks theory of depression
