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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What does cogntive mean?

A

mental processing

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2
Q

What is cognitive psychology?

A

how the mind deals with information
it assumes that behaviour is influenced by how you process information from the world around you

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3
Q

What helps you make sense of the world?

A

reasoning and remebering

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4
Q

What do cognitive psychologists compare out minds to? and why?

A

computers
3 basic stages = input,processing, output (behaviour)

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5
Q

What does attention mean?

A

you focus on something to the exclusion of other things

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6
Q

What is a model?

A

a way of representing a psychological process that is complex in a more simplified way
not exact diagrams of what happens biologically
a way of explaining an idea so that it can be tested in experiments

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7
Q

Who came up with the Multi-store model of memory ?

A

Attkinson and Shiffrin

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8
Q

What is the multi-store model of memory?

A

a representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores = sensory register, STM and LTM
also describes how information is transferred from one store to another

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9
Q

What are the 3 features of the memory stores?

A

coding
duration
capacity

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10
Q

What does coding mean?

A

the format information is stored in memory

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11
Q

What does capacity mean?

A

the amount of information that can be held in memory

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12
Q

What does duration mean?

A

the length of time information can be held in memory

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13
Q

What does semantic mean?

A

the meaning of words, something has a meaning

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14
Q

What does unitary mean?

A

each store is its own part and they are all seperate, they do not interact with the other stores

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15
Q

What is an iconic memory?

A

What something looks like

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16
Q

What is a echoic memory?

A

what it sounds like = acoustic

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17
Q

What does decay mean in terms of memory?

A

it has been forgotten

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18
Q

What is the sensory stores role?

A

all stimuli from the environment pass into the sensory store
there is a store for each sense
selects what relevant information we should pay atttention to and discards the rest

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19
Q

What is attention?

A

determins which information is transferred into the STM

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20
Q

What is the duration of the sensory store?

A

less than half a second

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21
Q

What is the coding in the sensory store?

A

modality specific = depends on the sense

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22
Q

What is the capacity of the sensory store?

A

very large

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23
Q

What was Sperling’s first method and findings for studying the sensory register?

A

displayed visual arrays to participants containing 3 rows of 4 letters
they were displayed for 50 milliseconds
participants could recall 4/5 letters and reported a presence of others

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24
Q

What was sperling’s further study on the sensory store? and its findings

A

used a report procedure
trained his participants to recognise 3 tones - 1 for each row
presented them with the visual arrays of 3 rows of 4 letters
the display was presented for 50 milliseconds
participants recalled a lot more with the tone

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25
Q

What was sperling’s findings?

A

a large amount of information is available so the capacity of the sensory register is very large but it decays very rapidly so duration is short

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26
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

A

between 5 and 9 chunks of information
7 +/- 2

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27
Q

What studies support the capacity of the STM?

A

Jacobs (1887)
Miller (1956)

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28
Q

What was Jacobs study of measuring digit span of the STM?

A

he read out lists of digits starting with 4 digits and asked the participants to recall them to him
if recalled corrcetly, the number of digits would increase until they incorrectly recalled a sequence

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29
Q

What did Jacobs find?

A

the mean digit span was 9 items for digits and 7 items for letters

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30
Q

What are the positives and negatives of jacobs study?

A

positives:
has been replicated with the same findings = valid and reliable

negatives:
very old study - could not be carefully controlled = EV and CO-V

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31
Q

What did miller do?

A

noticed that most things come in groups of 7 and he produced the chunking theory

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32
Q

What is the chunking theory?

A

if information is chunked or grouped together then you are able to remember more information
the larger the chunk = the less likely you are to remeber it

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33
Q

What is the problem with millers study?

A

may have overestimated the STM capacity

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34
Q

Who’s study showed that millers findings were an overestimate?

A

Nelson Cowon (2001) concluded that the capacity of the STM is 4+/- 1

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35
Q

What is the duration of the STM?

A

15-30 seconds
on average 18 secs

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36
Q

How can the duration of the STM be increased?

A

by maintenance rehearsal

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37
Q

What was Peterson and Peterson’s method of studying the STM duration? and what they found?

A

participants were breifly shown a trigram of 3 constonants and were asked to recall it after a period of 3,6,9,12,15 and 18 secs
before recall they were given the task to count backwards in 3s to prevent rehearsal
findings= as the time between presentation increased the less successful recall there was

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38
Q

What are the problems with Peterson and Peterson’s?

A

material was artificial
does not reflect everyday memory
lacked eternal and ecological validity

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39
Q

How is information coded in the STM?

A

acoustic (echoic)

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40
Q

What did Baddeley do to investigate the coding of the STM?

A

idenfied errors in recall of simular sounding words and simular meaning words
he showed them a list of words and asked them to recall them in the corret order
they were tested immediately after presentation

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41
Q

What did Baddeley find for coding in the STM?

A

more mistakes were made from words that were acoustically simular than semantically simular
the coding in the STM is acoustic

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42
Q

What are the positives and negatives of Baddeley’s STM study?

A

Positive:
identified a clear difference between two memory stores

negative:
artificial stimuli = limited application

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43
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

repeating information in your mind helps keep information in the STM

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44
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A

repeating information in the mind over a longer period of time will tranfer information into the LTM

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45
Q

Why is the capacity of the LTM difficult to research?

A

thought to be unlimited

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46
Q

Why is the LTM’s duration hard to investigate?

A

it is hard to prove that the info is not stored somewhere else
we might be unable to retrive something
we can make up memories

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47
Q

What did Bahrick do to investigate the LTM duration?

A

identifying whether or not people can still remeber the names and faces of their class mates many years after they have left school
included 392 americans aged 17-74
some used free recall others used photo recognition

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48
Q

What is free recall in Bahricks study?

A

had to simply recall the names of their class mates that they remebered

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49
Q

What did Bahrick find?

A

memories can be held in the LTM without distortion for a long time
after many years there may be some degeneration which could be as a result of age
the duration of the LTM is many years possibly unlimited

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50
Q

What are the postives of Bahricks study on LTM?

A

did attempt to control how much contact participants had with the yearbook
high external validity, real-life memory

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51
Q

What are the negatives of Bahricks study on the LTM?

A

only one type of LTM was used = can not be generalised
couldnt control yearbook contact fully
class mates could be of emotional significance which means there could of been lots of opputunity for rehearsal = seeing them everyday

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52
Q

What is the coding in the LTM?

A

semantic

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53
Q

What does semantic mean?

A

according to the meaning of words

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54
Q

What was Baddeley’s study on coding in the LTM?

A

identifying errors in recall of semantically simluar and dissimular words and errors of recall of acoustically simular and dissimilar words
asked to recall after 20 mins

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55
Q

What did Baddeley find for coding in the LTM?

A

that people were most likely to make mistakes with semantically simular words = coding in the LTM is semantic

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56
Q

What are the postives and negatives of Baddeleys LTM coding study?

A

Positive:
good control over the IV = possible cause and effcet

negative:
lacks ecological validity
artificial stimuli

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57
Q

What does the research support show us about the MSMM?

A

that the STM and LTM are different and seperate stores

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58
Q

Why isn’t all the research good support of the MSMM?

A

used materials with very little meaning
artificial
lacks ecological validity
may not be a valid model of how memory works everyday

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59
Q

How does Clive Wearing support the MSMM?

A

suffered brain damage as a result from a virus
supports that there are two seperate stores for STM and LTM

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60
Q

What does clive wearing disaprove about the MSMM?

A

that the LTM is more complicated that just a unitary store
he had a distinction between procedural and declarative memory - he could still play piano and recognise photos

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61
Q

Who is KF?

A

Tim shallice and Elizabeth Warrington (1970) studied their client KF who had amnesia from a moter cycle incident

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62
Q

How does KF support the MSMM?

A

was reduced to 2 digits but could still form new LTMs which supports the distinction of the STM and LTM

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63
Q

How does KF disprove the MSMM?

A

the model could not explain how KF was able to form new LTMs without a normal functioning STM as the MSMM states that information must pass through the STM to access the LTM
some parts of KF’s STM functioned well (visual info) while others didn’t = the STM is not a unitary store

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64
Q

Who is HM?

A

he had an operation to treat epilepsy which involved the removal of the hippocampus which is central to memory function
his memory was assesed, he was 31 at the time and he thought he was 27
he would read the same magazine over again
he perfromed well on digita span tests = good STM

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65
Q

How does HM support the MSMM?

A

he performed well on memory tests involving digit span which shows good STM as he had damaged his LTM = the stores are seperate

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66
Q

How does HM disprove the MSMM?

A

he was able to develop new skills which involves procedural memory - a type of LTM = the LTM is not a unitary store

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67
Q

What is incidental rehearsal?

A

things we have learnt without rehearsal eg. gossip

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68
Q

How does incidental learning disprove the MSMM?

A

suggests that some information can pass straight to the LTM while other information can be rehearsed and not enter the LTM
= the nature of the material is important in memory and this is ignored in the MSMM?

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69
Q

Who made up the Working memory model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch

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70
Q

What is the Working memory model?

A

an explaination of how one aspect of memory (STM) is organised and how it functions
it suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of info. using subunits
it is coordinated by a central decision-making system

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71
Q

What is STM better described as?

A

the working memory

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72
Q

What is the working memory?

A

refers to the things we are currently working on/thinking about/ paying attention to

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73
Q

What is the WMM concern?

A

concerned with the ‘mental space’ that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating info.

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74
Q

What is the central executive?

A

co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory and allocates the appropriate subsystem to that activity.
focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates subsystems to tasks.

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75
Q

What is the capacity of the CE?

A

very limited = can only attend to a limited no. of things

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76
Q

What is the coding of the CE?

A

modality free = it does not store info.

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77
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

processes info in terms of sound which can be written or spoken material
it is divided into two substores

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78
Q

What is the PL divided into?

A

the articulatory control system
the phonological store

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79
Q

What is the phonological store?

A

holds words you hear
known as the ‘inner ear’

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80
Q

What is the articulatory control system?

A

silently repeating words you hear to yourself
known as the ‘inner voice’
it allows maintenance rehearsal

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81
Q

What is the capacity of the PL?

A

2 secs worth of what you say/ hear

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82
Q

What is the coding of the PL?

A

acoustic (echoic)

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83
Q

What does the PL contribute to?

A

our learning of the sounds of language
acceses the LTM to store and retrieve info about language sounds
allows us to develop vocab and learn new languages

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84
Q

What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad?

A

it processes visual and spatial info
known as the ‘inner eye’
used when you have to visualise a spatial task

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85
Q

What is the capacity of the VSSP?

A

limited
(Baddeley 2003) - about 3-4 objects

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86
Q

What is the coding in the VSSP?

A

visual and spatial

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87
Q

What did Robert Logie do to the VSSP?

A

1995:
subdivided the VSSP into:
the visual cache and the inner scribe

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88
Q

What is the visual cache?

A

stores visual data

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89
Q

What is the inner scribe?

A

records the arrangement of objects in the visual feild

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90
Q

What does spatial mean?

A

the relationship in space between things/objects and how things are organised together

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91
Q

What are ‘visual semantics’?

A

the meanings of objects in our visual environment

92
Q

What is the Episodic Buffer?

A

brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory and provides a bridge between working memory and LTM
a temorary store for info and intergrates info into the other stores
maintains a sense of time sequencing = recording events that are happening
it enables the CE to access info in the LTM and intergrate it with info in the other subsystems

93
Q

When was the EB added to the WMM?

A

Baddeley 2000

94
Q

What is the capacity of the EB?

A

Baddeley 2012 - 4 chunks

95
Q

What is the coding in the EB?

A

modality free

96
Q

What does modality free mean?

A

not limited to 1 sense and it needs to manipulate all manner of info

97
Q

What is the word length effect?

A

uses the PL
the shortness of time to hold info, inhibits rehearsal of long words
the memory will disappear if you are given an articulatory suppression task like repeating words in your head

98
Q

Why do we easily get confused when carrying out complex tasks?

A

working memory has limited capacity and cant hold all the info

99
Q

What are automated tasks?

A

repeatedly practised tasks so often that they became automatic
they do not require much space in our working memory
we can do them without paying much attention

100
Q

What is Baddeley et al’s dual task performance research?

A

it demontrates how dual task perfromance is affected by whether the two tasks use the same or different components of the working memory

101
Q

What does the WMM predict about dual task performance?

A

it will be harder to do 2 things at the same time if they are both visual/ verbal tasks as they will be using the same store at the same time, they are competing for the same store’s capacity

102
Q

What was Baddeley’s method of investigating dual task performance?

A

gave Ps a visual task = tracking a moving light with a pointer (VSS)
they were given one other task to do at the same time:
1. imagining a hollow letter F and going around it saying whether each of the angles where inside/outside of the shape (VSS)
OR
2. repeating words (ACS + PS)
Task 1 showed impaired performance on the pointer task

103
Q

How does dual task experiments support the WMM?

A

it shows that there must be seperate subsystems that process visual and sound based info

104
Q

How do brain scans support the WMM?

A

Cohen 1997
put Ps in a fMRI brain scanner and asked them to carry out different tasks. When CE was working, there was activity in the frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) of the brain
the occipital lobe of the brain was active when the task was visual
tasks using different parts of the WM use different parts of the brain

105
Q

How does KF support the WMM?

A

had poor STM for sound based info but normal STM for visual info
he supports the idea that there are seperate parts of the STM

106
Q

How does the central executive propose a weakness for the WMM?

A

its a very important part of the model however the model doesnt give enough info on how it allocates resources
psychologists feel that it is too vague to suggest it is ‘attention’
the CE may consist of seperate subcomponents

107
Q

How does EVR disapprove the WMM?

A

he had a cerebral tumour removed and he performed well on reasoning tests = his CE was intact
but has poor decision making skills = CE not wholly intact
Proposes that the CE may be more complex than a single store

108
Q

What is the problem with the research from the human brain on the WMM?

A

formed from a reductionist view of the human brain which is based on the function of a computer
the research may therefore miss important nuances in behaviour and limits the usefullness of the research

109
Q

What are the problems with Cohen’s research involving brain scans?

A

areas of the prefrontal cortex may be involved in storage rather than just processing
Ps may have been engaged in other thinking routines which may have affected results
Although he was careful to choose neurologically right handed Ps = cannot be sure that the results can be generalised
they may also be significant differences between brain activity inside the fMRI scanner and brain activity in everyday life

110
Q

What was the problems with Baddeley’s research?

A

lab experiment = tasks appear artificial and are specifically chosen to activate seperate stores
research may not cover everything

111
Q

What are the problems with case studies?

A

can not generalise behaviours from single Ps
EVR = cannot be sure the CE will be similar in others - surgery may have damaged additional areas

112
Q

What was Tulving’s research on the types of LTM?

A

he realised that the MSMM’s view of the LTM was too simplistic and inflexible
he proposed that there are 3 LTM containing quite different info

113
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

memories of events that have happened in our lives

114
Q

What are the qualities of the episodic memory?

A

complex
made up of several elements (people, places, behvaiours) interwoven in a single memory
recalled using conscious effort
they are not taught to us
time stamped

115
Q

What is conscious effort?

A

we are aware of having to think to remember them

116
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

knowledge of facts about the world and meanings of words and concepts

117
Q

What are the qualities of semantic memory?

A

not time-stamped
does not require effort to recall
may be taught to us
less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting
less personal

118
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

memory for actions or skills basically how to do things

119
Q

What are the qualities of procedural memory?

A

usually recalled without conscious effort
not time stamped
may be taught to us
hard to explain to someone = automatic tasks

120
Q

How is Clive Wearing and HM evidence for the different types of LTM?

A

their episodic memory was severly impaired but their semantic and procedural memories were unaffected
there must be a distinction between the different types of LTM as one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected

121
Q

What is the problem with clinical evidence for the types of LTM?

A

they are not perfect
lack control of variables
injuries experienced are unexpected and the researcher had no control over them
have no knowledge of their memory before the damage so it is difficult to judge how much worse it was afterwards

122
Q

What does procedural memory mostly involve?

A

implicit memory = info that we do not store purposely and is unitentionally memorised

123
Q

How does damage to the hippocampus support the different types of LTM? (CW and HM)

A

their procedural memory was still intact and epirodic and some semantic memories are affected by damage to the hippocampus and other related areas
procedural memories probably involve the motor cortex and the cerebellum

124
Q

What is the motor cortex?

A

the part of the brain that is associated with the control of movement

125
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

part of the brain associated with fine motor skills

126
Q

What did Buckner and Peterson find about the the parts of the brain the LTM uses?

A

the loaction of the semantic memory is on the left side of the prefrontal cortex
the location of the episodic memory is on the right

127
Q

What did Cohen and Squire find about the different types of LTM?

A

they did not agree that episodic and semantic are stored seperately, they are part of a single store called declarative memory
they believe that procedural memory is a seperate store = non-declarative memory
there is a significanr degree of interdependance between episodic semantic

128
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

memories that can be consciously recalled

129
Q

What is interference?

A

when one memory blocks or interferes with another causing one/both memories to become distorted
two pieces info disrupt each other
usually occurs with memories that are similar

130
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

when old memories interferes with newer ones due to the original memory interferring with the formation/ retrieval of newer memories which are similar to it

131
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

when a newer memory interferers with an older one, the new learning disrupts the retrieval of the older memory associated with it

132
Q

What is the relationship between fogetting and similarity?

A

the degree of fogetting is greater when memories are similar

133
Q

Who studied the effect of similarity on retroactive interference?

A

McGeoch and McDonald

134
Q

How did McGeoch and McDonald study similarity on interference?

A

ps had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remeber them with 100% accuracy, then they learned a new list of words and were tested again on the original list
G1 = synonyms
G2 = antonyms (opposite meanings)
G3 = words unrelated
G4 = consonant syllables
G5 = 3 digit numbers
G6 = no new list (control)

135
Q

What did McGeoch and McDonald find on similarity and interference?

A

the most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall
interference is strongest when memories are similar

136
Q

What are the explainations for similarty and interference?

A

it could be due to proactive interference - previously stored info makes new, similar info is more difficult to store
or due to retroactive interference that new info overwrites previous similar memories because of similarity

137
Q

What are the advantages of McGeoch and Mcdonald?

A

replicated many times = increase reliablity and confidence
lab experiment = cause and effect
more relevant to everyday life = greater ecological validity

138
Q

What are the disadvantages of McGeoch and McDonald?

A

not as realistic as using memory for names and faces
artificial = can not be sure it is an explaination for forgetting in everyday life
findings tell us little about interference when memories are faces/ episodic and other everyday memories

139
Q

What are cues?

A

hints/ clues / trigger of info that allow us to access a memory. they might be meaningful or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning

140
Q

How can interference be overcome?

A

using cues

141
Q

Who investigated cues?

A

Tulving and Psotka

142
Q

What did Tulving and Psotka do to research cues?

A

gaves ps a list of words that were organised into categories, one list at a time, ps did not know the categories
recall was 70% for the first list but become worse when they had to learn more lists
at the end ps were given a cued recall test - told ps the categories
recall rose again to 70%

143
Q

What did Tulving and Pskota find on cues?

A

interference only causes temporary loss of access to info in the LTM - limits the explaination that interference is the reason for forgetting in the LTM

144
Q

What was Baddeley and Hitch’s rugby player study?

A

they asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against that season
recall for games played a few weeks ago was better if players had missed games since then = suggests that interference is the reason that the more regular players performed worse on recall
retrospective interference
playing more games = more silimar info

145
Q

What does Baddeley and Hitch’s rugby player study show?

A

interference can explain forgetting in real-life situations as well as in artificial environments
it increases the validity that interference is the main form of forgetting in the LTM

146
Q

What are the problems with Baddeley and Hitch’s rugby study?

A

interference in everyday situations is unusual because the conditions for interference are rare
forgetting could be explained by other theories = retrieval failure - lack of cues
the degree of similarity in the names of teams is unclear - CO-Vs
and induvidual differences in memories of the games
it does not highlight the complexity of real life forgetting

147
Q

What is the diazepan study?

A

ps learnt a list of words and were asked to recall them at a later date - assumming the intervening experiences would act as interference
learning words under the influence of diazepan, recall was poor compared to the group with a placebo
but when words were learnt bfore the drug, recall was better than placebo group
the drug improved recall of material learned beforehand

148
Q

What is retrieval failiure?

A

a form of forgetting
occurs when we dont have the neccessary cues to access info
the memory is still available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

149
Q

What are internal cues?

A

an internal focus of attention
a mood, degree of drunkness

150
Q

What are external cues?

A

the environmental context, something around you
physical loaction , weather

151
Q

What is the encoding specifity principle by Tulving?

A

suggests that cues must be present at the time of coding (learning) and also at the time of retrieval (recall). so we are more likely to forget something if the same cues are not present when we try to recall it

152
Q

How are cues coded in a meaningful way?

A

using mnemoic techniques

153
Q

What is context-dependant forgetting?

A

the recall depends on external cues - trying and failing to recall info in a different environmemt

154
Q

Who researched context-dependent forgetting?

A

Godden and Baddeley

155
Q

How did Godden and Baddeley research context-dependent forgetting (divers)?

A

they asked divers to learn lists of words either on the beach or underwater
half of each group had to recall the words in one of the two conditions

156
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley find on context-dependant forgetting?

A

divers who recalled in the same environment as learning recalled 40% more words than those who recalled in a different environment
the external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall and this led to retrieval failiure

157
Q

What is state-dependent forgetting?

A

people remember more if their physical and mental states are the same as learning and recall of info

158
Q

Who researched state-dependent forgetting?

A

Carter and Cassidy

159
Q

How did Carter and Cassidy research state-dependent forgetting and findings?

A

ps were ased to learn words either with/without a mild sedative (anti-histamine) beforehand
those who learned and were tested in different states did significantly worse on recall
so when internal cues that were present on learning are absent on recall, we are more likely to forget

160
Q

What are the evaluations of Carter and Cassidy? (SDF)

A

lab study - controlled, can be replicated, IV is manipulated, random allocation, control of induvidual differences

task if artificial - lacks ecological validity
artificial setup - demand cs

161
Q

What is the advantage of research on retrieval failure?

A

can help us overcome some forgetting in everyday situations
can remind us of strategies we use in the real world to improve out recall

162
Q

What are the problems in saying that retrieval failure is the explaination for forgetting?

A

the differences between context/ state between learning and recall must be significant to lead to forgetting - in real life great differences are rare = lacks external validity
retrieval failure could be due to lack of contextual cues which may not actually explain much everyday forgetting

163
Q

Why could retrival failure be an explaination for forgetting?

A

good evidence from studies
cognitive interviews = strongly supports the importance of context-dependent forgetting

164
Q

Why does research on memory have implication for the economy?

A

can help us learn more successfully
gain better qualifications
get better paid work

all contributes to the economy

165
Q

How did Godden and Baddeley test recall vs recognition?

A

replicated their underwater expet. but used a recognition test instead of recalling words
ps had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from a list

166
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley find on recognition?

A

when recognition was tested there was no context-dependent effect and performance was the same in all 4 conditions
suggesting that retrieval failure is a limited explaination for forgetting and only applies when a person has to recall info

167
Q

What is an Eyewitness Testimony?

A

refers to the description given by people of an event they have experienced, it is given at a criminal trial by induviduals present at the time of the crime

168
Q

What are leading questions?

A

questions that suggest a certain answer because of the way they are phrased

169
Q

What is misleading information?

A

incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event

170
Q

What did loftus and palmer do?

A

investigated the effects of ps hearing different words when asked about their memory of a car crash

171
Q

What was loftus and plamer’s method on investigating misleading info?

A

45 students were shown a 30sec video of a car crash
they were then asked a question about the speed that the cars were travelling
the question used a different verb for different groups
they were also asked a week later if they had seen any broken glass on the road with a Q with two different verbs

172
Q

What did loftus and plamer find on misleading info?

A

the average estimated speed was found to increase as the strength of the verb increased
and the strength of the verb used influenced the ps if they saw glass after the collision

173
Q

What does loftus and palmer show ?

A

how leading Qs can bias memory and suggests that EWT may not be reliable

174
Q

what is response-bias explaination?

A

suggests that the wording of the Q can influence the answer ps give but may not actually alter their memories
the wording of the Q has no real effect on the ps memories but just influences how they decide to answer

175
Q

What is the substitution explaination?

A

the wording of the Q actually changes the memory of what was seen, the wording of the Q changes the ps memory of the film clip

176
Q

What are the advantages of research on leading questions?

A

has implications in the areas of EWT and courtroom procedure, suggests that EWT may not be reliable
Loftus = police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their Qs as leading Qs have a very distorting effect on memory - psychologists can help improve the way the legal system works
lab study = replicable,cause and effect

177
Q

What are the disadvantages of research on leading Qs?

A

difficulty generalising findings to real EWT situations
lacks external vallidity
little emotional involvement
real EWT has consequences - ps responses in study do not matter
Fruzetti et al = L and P focus on peripheral details, it is much harder to distort EWT by misleading info for key details

178
Q

What was Yullie and Cutshall’s study?

A

interviewed 13 witnesses to an attempted theft from a gun shop where the shopkeeper shot and killed the theif
they interviewed the witnesses 4 months later

179
Q

what did Yullie and Cutshall find on misleading info?

A

the accounts remained highly accurate and were not affected by misleading info
misleading info may not affect real life memories due to emotional significance

180
Q

What is the possible problem with Yullie and Cutshall’s study?

A

the ps had already been interviewed by police many times = extra rehearsal helped witnesses ‘fix’ accurate memories

181
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

when witnesses discuss what they have seen with other witnesses of the event which could possibly lead to contamination of their EWT

182
Q

Who researched post-event discussion?

A

Gabert et al

183
Q

How did Gabert study post event discussion?

A

asked ps in pairs to watch a video of a crime, the videos showed different viewpoints
the pairs discussed what they saw

184
Q

What did Gabert find on post event discussion?

A

71% of ps recalled events they had not seen in the video but had picked up from the discussion
supports the idea that post event discussion can affect the accuracy of EWT
memory conformity

185
Q

What is memory conformity?

A

a memory error due to social approval, people trust that others are more likely to be right than they are

186
Q

How can the effects of post-event discussion be reduced?

A

if people are warned of their impact, that they could be contaminated and they should be aware and stick to their opinion

187
Q

What is anxiety?

A

a state of emotional and physical arousal in response to stress involving worry, tension or increased heart rate etc.

188
Q

What did Johson and scott do?

A

investigated the effects of anxiety on EWT
the ps who thought theyb were in the waiting room of a lab expt. when the test was already ongoing in the waiting room
ps had to identify the man carrying the item into the room from 50 photos

189
Q

What was johnson and scott’s low anxiety condition?

A

they heard a casual conversation in the room next door and saw a man holding a pen covered in grease

190
Q

what was johnson and scott’s high anxiety condition?

A

heard an argument in next room and saw a man holding a bloody paper knife

191
Q

what did Johson and scott find on anxiety and EWT?

A

the ps who were in the low-anxiety condition had 49% accurate recall
the ps in the high-anxiety condition had 33% accurate recall
suggests that anxiety can make EWT LESS accurate for identifying faces

192
Q

What is the tunnel theory of memory?

A

it argues that people have enhanced recall for central events but less accurate details of peripheral details due to a narroe focus of attention on the source of anxiety

193
Q

What is the weapon focus effect?

A

people focus their attention on the weapon because it causes a state of anxiety which leads to difficulties in recalling other details accurately

194
Q

What did pickel say about johnson and scott’s study?

A

it may be explained by unsualness than anxiety as ps focused on the knife because they were surprised by it

195
Q

What was pickel’s study on unsualness rather than anxiety?

A

ps saw someone carrying either a gun,scissors, wallet or raw chic in a hairdressers
the EW accuracy was the worst for the chic and the gun = as they were unsual items to be in a hairdressers

196
Q

What did pickel’s study suggest?

A

that the weapon focus effect may be due to unsualness rather then anxiety
the more unsual something is = the less accuracy on recall

197
Q

Who carried out the London dungeon study?

A

Valentine and Mesout

198
Q

What was the london dugenon study?

A

it studied visitors of the london dungeons. the ps wore heart monitors and did questionaires to measure their anxierty

199
Q

What did the london dungon study find?

A

those who experienced high anxiety = they had less recall of actors (17%)
low anxiety = better recall (75%)
anxiety disrupted the ability to recall details and it has a negative effect on EW recall

200
Q

What does Yullie and Cutshall’s study show for anxiety on EWT?

A

those who reported high anxiety had the most accurate recall
this suggests that anxiety does not have a detrimental effect on the accuracy of recall of a real-life event and may even enhance recall

201
Q

What did Yerkes and Dodson suggest?

A

the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an ‘inverted U’

202
Q

What is Yerkes-Dodson law?

A

the medium levels of anxiety (emotional and physical arousal) improve the accuracy of EWT but high/ low arousal makes recall worse

203
Q

What are cognitive interviews?

A

a method of interviewing EW to help them retrieve more accurate memories
has 4 techniques that are used

204
Q

Who developed Cognitive interviews?

A

Fisher and Geiselman

205
Q

What are the 4 techniques used in cognitive interviews?

A

report everything
mental reinstatement
changing the order of recall
changing perspective

206
Q

What happens in the report everything stage of a C.I?

A

the EW is encouraged to report every single detail even if those details may seem irrelevent

207
Q

What is the purpose of reporting everything in a C.I?

A

seemingly trivial details may be important and could act as cues to triggering recall

208
Q

What is mental reinstatement in the C.I?

A

the EW is encouraged to mentally recreate the original crime scene in their mind eg: sounds, smells, weather, feelings

209
Q

What is the purpose of mental reinstatement in C.I?

A

acts as cues/ triggers for recall and reduces the risk of context dependent/ state dependent forgetting

210
Q

What is changing the order of recall in C.I?

A

EW tries alternative ways of recall through the timeline of the incident

211
Q

What is the purpose of changing the order of recall in C.I?

A

to avoid the use of schemas which creates inaccuracies, prevents dishonesty and has more accurate recall

212
Q

What is changing the perspective of C.I?

A

the EW is asked to recall the incident from different perspectives and how it would of appeared to other witnesses present

213
Q

What is the purpose of changing the perspective in C.I?

A

it disrupts the effects of schemas and expectations, it encourages many retrieval paths

214
Q

What are schemas?

A

expectations of how the event must have happened

215
Q

Who developed the enhnaced cognitive interview?

A

Fisher et al.

216
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

it includes additional elements that focus on the social dynamics of the interview:
use of eye contact
reducing EW anxiety
minimising distractions
open ended Qs
active listening skills

217
Q

What did Geiselman’s meta-analysis on C.Is find?

A

53 studies:
an average increase of 34% in the ammound of correct info generated from C.I than standard interviews
C.I is more effective in prompting more accurate recall

218
Q

What were the problems with Geiselman’s meta-analysis?

A

the study included volunteers in a lab = artificial situation and does not reflect what happens when ps have witnessed a real crime

219
Q

What did Stein and Meman do to study C.I?

A

recruited women from cleaning staff of a UNI and asked them to watch a video of an abduction

220
Q

What did Stein and Meman find on C.Is?

A

CI provided far superior data which was rich in detail compared to a standard methods
CI is effificent
was done in an artificial environment

221
Q

What are the problems with police using C.I?

A

they use different parts of C.I so it is difficult to draw conclusions

222
Q

What is the shortened version of the C.I?

A

mental reinstatement and recall everything = they have the best recall accuracy

223
Q

What does the effectiveness of C.I depend on?

A

officers getting the right quantity and quality of training
the training can take up time and money

224
Q

How do cognitive interviews have implications for the economy?

A

funding is needed for training therefore there is an increase in public spending
it is a more successful method of gathering accurate info = increases police efficency
increased police efficency = reduce costs to buisnesses through lower crime rates

225
Q

What did Eysench and Keane say about C.I?

A

they believe thay C.I is one of the most successful contributions psychologists have made to the economy

226
Q

What are the aims of C.I?

A

to improve effectiveness of interviews when questioning witnesses
apply results of psychological research
to outline Tulving’s encoding specificity principle = cue must be presnt at encoding and retrieval

Psychology A level (10 decks)

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