Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is universality?
the assumption that research can be applied to everyone, everywhere regardless of time and culture
What is bias?
a distortion in representation of a group/data. A view is biased if it leans toward a subjective opinion.
What is gender bias?
a distorted view of behaviours that may be typical and atypical for men and/or women this could lead to misrepresentation
What is alpha bias?
research that exaggerates differences between men and women
What is an example of alpha bias?
Freud stated that the identification process for the development of the superego (working on morality principle), is weaker in females than males
so girls develop a weaker sense of morals
What is beta bias?
research that ignores, minimises or underestimates differenes between men and women
What are some examples of beta bias?
Asch in confomity - applied it to everyone
Taylor in fght or flight in male animal studies - females have a different respone
What is androcentrism?
research that is centred on men
‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to the male standard
female behaviour is often judged as abnormal
What is an example using agression of androcentrism?
male anger is seen as a rational response to external pressues like sexual jealousy
female anger is less accepted as concepts like prementrual syndrome medicalises female emotions
What did Maccoby and Jacklin state on diffrence between males and females?
girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability
these differences are hardwired into the brain before birth
What disproves Maccoby and Jacklin’s research on bio sex differences?
recent brain scans found no sex differences in brain structure
the data from their research was fitting the social stereotypes of the time
What brain stucture difference did Ingalhalikar et al find on men and women?
there are more connections between hemispheres in women’s brains = explains the stereotype that women are better at multi-tasking
How is sexism present in research?
male researchers are more likely to have their work published
research that find gender differences are more likely to be published
institutional sexism creates bias in theory
What is the main issue with having misleading info on female behaviour?
biase science provides ‘scientific’ justification for denying women oppotunities
What did Tim Hunt state on women in lab setting jobs?
girls in the lab cause men to fall in love with them and they cry when they are criticised
How can you avoid gender bias in research?
promote universality
women should be studied in a meaningful real-life context
diversity between groups of women should be studied
research women dominated areas
What is culture bias?
the tendancy to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour
What does WEIRD nations stand for?
Westernised
educated
industrialised
rich
democracies
What is enthnocentrism?
jugding others by the value and standards of one’s own culture. it may include beliefs that one’s culture is superior
What is an example of enthnocentrism?
Ainsworth strange situ - used a western society
Takahashi japan variation found different results
Van ijzendoorn and Kroogenburg cultural variation
What is cultural relativism?
the idea that behaviour can only be properly meaningful and understood in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which the study was carried out in.
Research may only relate to the culture it has studied within
What is imposed etic?
studying behaviour outside of a culture and attempting to describe those behaviours as universal
What are 2 examples are imposed etic/ cultural relativism?
ainsworth strange situ - imposed etic
definitions of abnormality
What is the cultural issues with a lot of classic studies?
all of the social influence expts. were conducted on US ps which is an individualist culture where people feel as tho they can make more of their own decisions
replications in collectivist cultures gave different results
What has made the Individualism-Collectivism distinction less relevant?
we are in an age of increased media globalisation
What is Takano and Osaka study on Japan and US differences?
14/15 studies that compares the US to japan found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism
Who developed the 1st IQ tests in the 1930s?
Gould
What was the issues with the 1st IQ test in the 1930s?
it was culturally biased as they included items on American products and presidants
south-eastern Europians and African-Americans got the lowest scores
test results were used to be racist towards a particular culture and ethnic group = they were denied educational and occupational oppotunities
What did Ekman find on universality and cultures?
basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world
What is an example of cultural relativism vs universality?
Ainsworth - features of forming attach like interactional synchrony and imitation are universal
What is an implication of Culture Bias?
cultural psychology = studies how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience aims to avoid ethnocentric assumptions, takes an emic approach
What is the emic approach?
conducts research with a particular culture
How can culture bias be avoided in research?
do not attempt to extrapolate to cultures that are not represented in the study
researchers that are native or immersed with the culture being studied
cross-cultural research
do not make assumptions
be sensitive
single-culture studies
reflexive approach - refect on your own biases
What is free will?
people have the power to make choices and control their own behaviour/ thoughts
What are 2 examples of free will in psych?
internal locus of control
cognitive approach to explaining depression
What is determinism?
behaviour is controlled by either internal or external forces
What is hard determinism?
all human behaviour behaviour has an internal or external cause - these causes are outside of a person’s control
What are 2 examples of hard determinsim?
the bio appoarch
behavioural approach = everything is caused by conditioning
What is soft determinism?
behaviour and actions are to an extent governed by internal or external forces but we still have some element of control and free will
What are 2 examples of soft determinism?
cognitive approach
social learning theory - mediational processes
What is biological determinism?
behaviour is determined by bio factors outside of our control for example, the influfence of genes, neurotransmitters and brain structure on mental health
What is an example of bio determinism?
the autonomic nervous system on the stress response
What is environmental determinsim?
behaviour is determined by environmental factors outside of our control
What is an example of environmental determinsim?
reinforcements and punishments for behaviours = skinner
What is psychic determinism?
behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood that are outisde of our control
the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences
What is an example of psychic determinism?
Freud - the superego follows the morality principle, girls do not identify with their mothers as strongly so their identification is weaker and they internalise weaker morals
How does science support determinism?
it is consistent with the aims of science
it places psychology on equal footing with other established sciences
it allows prediction and control of behaviour
it has led to the development of therapies and treatments
What treatment has been developed from determinism?
psychotherapeutic drugs for management of schizophrenia
What is the case against determinism in terms of the legal system?
hard determinsim is not consistent with the way in which the legal system operates
offenders are held morally accountable for their actions and cannot blame external factors
What is the issue against determinism in terms of unfalsifiablity?
determinism as an approach is unfalsifiable, - it cannot be proven wrong it should simply be accepted
What is the face validity case for Free will?
even if we do not have free will, if we think we do it may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour,
it is something that seems true on the surface
What did robert et al find to support free wil?
adolesences with a strong belief in determinism and an external LOC, were at a greater risk of depresion
What is Libet’s study disproving free will?
neurological studies of decision-making found that brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices predates our knowlegde of having made a choice
there is a 10 sec delay where the choice is already made in the brain before being conscious of making a decision
What is a causal explaination?
it is based on the scientific notion that behaviour is caused by internal/external factors and there is always a cause for everything
this aligns with determinism
What is the idiographic approach?
research that focuses on an individual
uses subjective experiences
does not want general laws or theories of behaviour
What is the nomethetic approach?
attempts to generalise people
uses objective knowledge
based on numerical data or data that can be categorised
wants general laws and theories for generalisation
What is an example of the idiographic approach?
the humanistic approach = Rogers and Maslow
How is the humanistic app idiographic?
documents the conscious experiences of an idividual = concerned with the unique experience of self
What is are examples of nomethic approach?
cog app
bio app
behaviourist
psychodynamic applications = little hans
What are 2 studies that demonstrate the nomethetic app?
milgram = theory of situational obedience
Ainsworth = attach types
How is the behaviourist app nomethetic?
skinner + behaviourists studied the responses of hundreds of animals i order to develop the laws of learning
How is the cognitive app nomethetic?
you are able to infer the processes of human memory by measuring large samples in lab tests
cognitive development by Piaget is the same in all humans
How is the bio app nomethetic?
brain scans on many people make generalisations about localisation of function
What is the case supporting the idiographic app?
provides a complete and global account of the individual = challenges laws
eg : HM generates hypotheses for further study = LTM is not a unitray store
What is the case against the idiographic app?
it must recognise the restricted nature of the work
Freud’s oedipus complex was critised = developed from a single case - Little hans
meaningful generalisations cannot be made
less scientific
subjective interpretation of researcher = bias
What is the case for the nomethetic app?
more scientific = testing under stand. cond using control
enabled psychologists to establish norms of typical behaviour = average IQ
giving the discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility
What is the case against the nometheitic app?
general laws and prediction = loses the whole person
knowing there is a risk for a disorder does not tell us what it is like to have the disorder
treats ps as a set of scores rather than individuals
subjective experiences are ignored
overlooks human experience
What is nature?
behaviour is seen to be the product of innate genetic factors
What is nurture?
behaviour is seen to be a product of environmental factors
What did John locke say about the mind in terms of the nurture debate?
the mind is a blank state at birth which is then shaped by its environment
What are examples of the nature debate?
intelligence and personality are determined by genes like eye colour
bio app = explaining OCD and aggression
What are examples of the nurture debate?
learning apps
behavioural explanations of phobias
social learning theory for aggesion
What is the nature-nurture debate?
refers to the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors
What is the interactionist app?
behaviour is the product of genetic and environmental influences working together
What is an example of the interactionist app?
the diahesis-stress model suggets people inherit a vulnerability for OCD or schizophrenia but it will only be expressed if the person is exposed to environmental triggers
What is epigenetics?
refers to a change in our genetic activity due to out environment without changing the genes themselves
What are the negative implications of the nature perspective?
attempted to link race, genetics and intelligence = socially sensitive research
What is the negative implication of the nurture perspective?
suggets behaviour can be changed by altering the environmental conditions
may lead to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates citizens using these techniques
What type of studies did the nature-nurture app develop?
adoption studies
What are the strengths of using adoption studies?
they seprate competing influences of nature and nurture
research can separate nature and nurture influences
What can you tell from adopted children being more similar to biological parents?
genetic factors are presumed to dominate
What can you tell from adopted children being more similar to adoptive parents?
the environment has a bigger influence than genetics
What was Rhee and Waldman’s adoption meta-analysis?
found genetic factors accout for 41% of varience in aggression
What did Plomin’s niche picking?
people create their own nurture by actively seeking environments that are appropriate for their nature
What is an example of niche picking?
naturally aggressive children feel more comfortable with other aggressive children which further influencs their development
What does niche picking suggest about the nature-nurture debate?
they cannot be seperated
What is the real world application of the nature-nurtue debate?
finding out heritablity rates
Nestadt = heritablility rate for OCD was .76
can inform genetic counselling = people are genetically vulnerable for a disorder
educate them on prevention = manage stress
What is holism?
an argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible study rather than its constituent parts
What is the ductch winter hunger study show about epigenetics?
babies of women who were pregnant during the Dutch Hunger winter were X2 likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up
shows that life experineces of previouse generattions can leave epigenetic markers that influence the health of their offspring
What is reductionism?
the belief that human behaviour is best understood by breaking it down into its constituent parts/basic units and explaining at the simplest level
What are levels of explaination?
the idea that there are several ways (levels) of explaining behaviour
What is the lowest level of explaination?
physiological and biological explainations
What is the middle level of explaination?
psychological explainations
What is the highest levels of explaination?
considering social and cultural explainations
What is the example of aggression using levels of explaination?
physiological level = having high levels of testosterone
social-psychological level = the social learning theory
What is biological reductionism?
analysing behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts and explaining at the simplest physiological level
What is environmental reductionism?
an attempt to explain behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience
What is the case for holism and higher levels of explaination?
some aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context cannot be understood at the level of individual group members = eg conformity
holistic level explainations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour
What is the case against holism and higher levels of explaination?
can be vague, complex
cant be scientifically tested
humanistic app is critisised for its lack of empirical evidence = it has loose concepts
What is the case for reductionism and lower levels of explaination?
forms the basis of scientific research = creates operationalised variables by breaking down target behaviours into constituent parts
makes it possible to record obvs in behavioural categories = meaningful and reliable
complex learning can be broken down into simple stimulus-response links within the lab
greater scientific credibility
What is the case against reductionism and low levels of explaination?
oversimplifies complex phenomena leading to loss of validity
doesn’t consider social context
can only form part of an explaination and not all of it
What is ethical implications of research? A01
the way research impacts on those who take part in the research and the way the findings are communicated to the public and how those finding are used
What is socially sensitive research? A01
studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participant in the research or the class of individuals represented by the research
What are 2 examples of socially sensitive research? A02
women affected by Bowlby’s work on attach.
women affected by Quintons work on the effects of institutionalisation
What are the 3 concerns researchers should be mindful of identified by Sieber and Stanley? A01
implications
uses/ public policy
validity of research
Why should the researchers be mindful of the implications of the research? A01
some studies may be seen as giving scientific credence and legitimising prejudice and discrimination
Why should researchers be mindful of the research uses and public policy? A01
the government could use findings for political ends or to shape public policy
Why does the validity of the research need to be considered?
to avoid bias being published
What should researchers be considering when publishing findings? A01
the effects on ps
effects on wider population
potential use of findings = political, allocation of resources
bias against certain groups of people
influence moral attitudes towards different groups of people
economic implications
How can you avoid socially sensitive research?
submit proposals to ethics commitees
weigh up costs and benefits
formulate aims that do not misrepresent certain groups of people
present findings in a value-free way
consider wider effects of publication + possible reactions of ps
What did Scarr argue on the benefit of socially sensitive research?
argues that studies of underrepresnted groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of these
EG homosexuality
What did the DSM label homosexuality as?
a sociopathic personality disorder
What was responsible for removing the DSM’s label for homosexuality?
the kinsey report = homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
What is the issue of using socially sensitive research in the legal system?
research on the genetic basis of criminality = found there is a criminal gene
someone could be convicted on the basis of their genes or excused for their wrongdoing
How has socially sensitive research benefitted society?
governments looks to research when developing policies for childcare, education, mental health
psychologists have an important role in providing high quality research
How is bias in methodology an issue with socially sensitive research?
Sieber and Stanley = the way in which questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way the findings ae interpretted
cross-cultural research may have cultural superiority and ethnocentrism on behalf of the researhers
EG ainsworths strange situtation
