WK 5 - Carbohydrates Flashcards
What is a macromolecule?
giant bonded concatenations of small molecules called SUBUNITS. Several to thousands.
Biological systems are structurally composed of 4 basic types of organic MACROmolecules. What are they?
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
What are proteins made from?
amino acids
What is concatenate?
an arrangement of structures in a row, like the links of a chain.
what are Carbohydrates made from?
Sugars
What are lipids made from?
aliphatic chains and sterol
What are nucleic acids made from?
nucleotides
what does suffix -ose designate?
Carbohydrate - whether starch or sugar
What does “saccharide” designate?
another term that will indicate sugar or carbohydrate.
What is a starch?
macromolecular sized carbohydrates made of repeating subunits of sugars. (complex sugars)
simple sugars are…?
mono or disaccharides
monosaccharides are the basic building block of all starches and sugars
What are complex sugars?
polysaccharides
What do digestion processes convert starches and sugars to?
glucose - a biological sugar that cells utilize in energy production.
What is the characteristic structure of a monosaccharide sugar?
a ring of 4 or 5 carbohydrate atoms with 1 oxygen atom included in the ring with numerous OH- (hydroxyl) groups attached to the ring.
Monosaccharides are single sugar moieties or subunits or building blocks. These single subunits can also be called…?
Monomers
What is a disaccharides?
two monosaccharides bonded by and oxygen bridge using dehydration synthesis reaction. Now called a dimer.
disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined by WHAT?
Through which chemical reaction do they join?
What are they called when join?
oxygen bridge
dehydration synthesis
dimers
What is an oligosaccharide?
a small length polysaccharide with 3 to 10 sugar subunits.
Where are oligosaccharides found?
as a component of glycoproteins or glycolipids used as cell surface markers (immune recognitions, blood typing)
O blood type is missing oligosaccharides
B blood type has a certain oligosaccharide, A a different one
Plants create three major starch types synthesized from glucose. What are they?
Amylose
Amylopectin
Cellulose
What is cellulose used for in a plant?
structure
What is amylose and amylopectin used for in a plant?
energy storage molecules, easily broken down to glucose
What is glycogen?
an important starch created by animals and stored in the liver and skeletal muscles.
Primary source of carbohydrate storage in animals.
created from glucose subunits.
What is the most important monosaccharide in biological systems?
Glucose
it is the fuel for mitochondrion to make ATP
What is Glucose?
a simple 6-carbon sugar called an aldohexose
it has an aldehyde group
What are the two forms of enantiomers (mirror image molecules) glucose exists as?
L-glucose
D-glucose
Which enantiomer of glucose is used for energy generation?
d-glucose
Is glucose a ring or a chain?
it moves back and forth between ring and chain structure when dissolved. The rate is determined by the pH of the solution (cytoplasm)
what is a Chiral Conformation?
simple position change of certain groups or elements of a molecule (not an enantiomer, which all parts flip)
what are the two distinct chiral conformations of glucose?
alpha (∂) and beta (ß)
only ß-D-glucose is utilized in glucose.
∂-D-glucose is rapidly converted to beta by an enzyme
What kind of glucose is utilized in glycolysis to produce ATP?
ß-D-glucose
What is a ketose sugar?
a 6-carbon simple sugar with a ketone group.
What kind of sugar is Fructose?
a ketose sugar
Is fructose a ring or a chain?
it flips back and forth in solution and has ß and ∂ chiral forms
What is dehydration synthesis?
2 monosaccharides are bonded by an enzyme molecule of H2O is released, as if the new molecule has dried out a bit. Thus, the bonding dehydrates. In sugars it is called a glycosidic bond.
What is a glycosidic bond and how is it formed?
a bond formed by dehydration synthesis linking sugar monomers. Most common sugar bond, exclusive bond in starches.
one OH- and one H+ are removed then an Oxygen bridge is formed releasing H2O.
What is hydrolysis?
a catabolic process where macromolecules like proteins and carbohydrates are broken down into their individual subunits. It uses water and is the opposite of dehydration synthesis. The H+ group and OH- are replaced.
Why do people get thirsty after a high-starch and high-protein meal?
the stomach and intestines need water to complete the catabolic breakdown of proteins and carbohydrates into subunits by hydrolysis.
Are starches typically composed of the same or differing types of monomers?
same.
Is sucrose composed of same or differing monomers?
different monomers
What is amylose?
a huge long chain plant starch of glucose monomers.
Water soluble starch broken down by amylase (common salivary and intestinal enzyme)
How is glycogen produced?
monomers joined together via the glycogenesis process
What is the major energy storage molecule of muscle tissue?
Glycogen-
not fat or proteins as is commonly assumed
Is hydrogen bonding in cellulose important?
Yes. The weak attractions of hydrogen to adjacent oxygen (in polysaccharide change) gives another level of bonding in the macromolecule. In Cellulose, the polysaccharide strands are held tightly together giving its stiff dry character.
What is an animal starch functioning as a protective cover?
Chitin. A structural and protective starch which makes the exoskeletons of insects.
What is Chitin made from?
a polysaccharide of repeating monomers of N-acetyl glucosamine.
what is N-acetyl glucosamine?
a two carbon sugar-amino (<–contains nitrogen) monomer
What is metabolism?
the enormous set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life.
What are the two classifications of metabolism?
Catabolic and anabolic
What is catabolism?
the process that breaks down molecules and macromolecules to harvest nutrition and energy.
what is anabolism?
the process that builds molecules (hormones, building blocks of molecules) and macromolecules. The storing of glycogen and fat are types of anabolic processes.
The anabolic process of biosynthesis is what?
The building of molecules and macromolecules.
What is the most commonly used molecule to generate cellular energy?
charbohydrates
What creates ATP?
carbohydrates in the form of glucose fuel the systems that create ATP.
What are teh 2 methods to generate ATP?
glycolysis creates substrates that feed the kreb’s Cycle followed by Oxidation Phosphorylation to create ATP.
Prokaryotes use only glycolisis.
What is the utilization of glucose and other small molecules to create ATP called?
cellular respiration
What is Anaerobic respiration?
respiration taking place without oxygen.
Is glycolysis anaerobic or aerobic respiration?
anaerobic
Is the Kreb’s cycle anaerobic or aerobic?
aerobic. but releases CO2
what does the suffix -ase denote?
enzyme
What are the 5 points on the general metabolism chart of carbohydrates?
1- large carbohydrates degraded to simple sugars
2- sugars enter glycolysis and form pyruvate + 2 ATP = NADH
3- pyruvate converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A
4- acetyl CoA enters Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
5- ATP produced from oxidative phosphorylation of Krebs products plus CO2
What does glycolysis metabolize simple sugars to create?
pyruvic acid (2 pyruvic, 2DHH and 4 ATP) ß-D-glucose is the only simple sugar that enters the glycolitic cycle. This process uses 2 ATP.
What is the Glycolytic Cascade?
Glycolisis
What is phsophorylation?
The process by which we break down of sugar by ATP to be processed via a cascade of enzymatic reaction to create 2 pyruvic acid, 2 NADAH and 4 ATP
Where does Glycolysis take place?
In the cytoplasm of cells. Can also take place in the mitochondrion
What is gluconeogenesis?
the process of creating glucose from molecules like lactate or amino acids to make ATP.
what regulates gluconeogenesis?
insulin
Do we want gluconeiogenesis?
no. only occurs when blood sugar is too low.
What is pyruvic acid or pyruvate and what does it do?
3-carbon chain (2 are made from the 5 carbon glucose chain) with a carboxyl group and a methyl group. Essential for producing ATP in the Krebs cycle by forming Acetyl Co Enzyme A (CoA)
what is CoA?
Acetyl Co Enzyme A - shunts carbon from pyruvate into the Krebs Cycle. Giant molecule that is used to carry Pyruvate into the Krebs cycle over and over.
What is NADH or NAD+?
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
NAD+ is the oxidized form NADH is the reduced form
important energy carrying intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism. Made up of 2 nucleotides and bonded by an oxygen bridge. Made from Vit B3.
What is ATP?
Adenosine Triphosphate. The usable form of energy in the body. The result of Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain.
