WK 2 - Research Methods Flashcards
The most important descriptive statistics are measures of ___________, which provide an index of the way a typical participant responded to a measure.
central tendency
The ___________ is the statistical average of the scores of all participants.
mean
The ___________ is the most common or frequent score or value of the variable observed in the sample
mode
The ___________ is the score that falls right in the middle of the distribution of scores; half of the participants score below it and half above it.
median
___________ refers to the extent to which participants tend to differ from one another in their scores.
Variability
A ___________ is a symmetrical shape that represents the distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities of a set of data.
bell curve
Psychologists apply tests of statistical significance to determine whether positive results are likely to have occurred simply by chance.
TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
Psychologists accept p values that fall below .05 (that have a probability of being accidental of less than 5 percent).
TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
Statistical techniques are useful ways of making an argument, and are foolproof methods for establishing psychological truths.
TRUE or FALSE
FALSE
Common statistical tests are ?
Chi-square
Median
P Value
Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA)
Chi-square
Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA)
Which research method manipulates variables to assess cause and effect?
Experimental
Which research method uses in-depth observation of a small number of cases?
Case study
Which research method uses in-depth observation of a penomenon as it occurs in nature?
Naturalistic observation
Which research method asks people questions about their attitudes, behaviour, etc?
Survey research
Which research method examines the extent to which two or more variables are related and can be used to predict one another?
Correlational research
Case studies, naturalistic observation and survey research are all examples of the _____________ research method.
Descriptive
The strength of the _____________ research method is the ability to demonstrate cause and effect.
Experimental
_____________ research describes phenomena as they already exist rather than manipulating variables.
Descriptive
_______________ research assesses the degree to which two variables are related
Correlational
Straw man, appeals to popularity, appeals to authority and arguments directed to the person are all examples of what?
Logical fallacies
___________ methods tend to be most useful in the context of discovery, where as ___________ methods tend to be the most useful in the context of justification.
Descriptive, experimental
Although I ran an elegant study which produced significant differences between groups in my lab, my results don’t actually predict what people do in the real world. My study is very low in:
External validity
An experiment compares student GPAs between those who eat breakfast and those who don’t. After the experiment, it is found that those who eat breakfast in the cafeteria are also listening to music. Not only do the two groups differ in terms of who has breakfast, but they also differ in terms of who hears the music. Music is a:
Possible confounding variable
What is a sample that draws a proportion from each population category?
Stratified random sample
If I perform some statistics on the data that I have gathered, and those statistics merely summarise the findings, I must have used:
Descriptive statistics
__________ is the extent to which results can be applied to the population.
Generalisability
Experimental research manipulates _______________ variables to see their effect on _______________ variables.
Independent, dependent
The ____________ is the statistical average of the scores of all participants
mean
The ____________ is the most common or frequent score of value of the variable observed in the sample.
mode
The ____________ is the score that falls right in the middle of the distribution of scores; half of the participants score below it and half above it.
median
____________ refers to the extent to which participants tend to differ from one another in their scores.
Variability
The ____________ refers to the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample.
standard deviation
A ____________ is a symmetrical shape that represents the distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities of a set of data.
bell curve
Psychologists accept p values that fall below .05 (that have a probability of being accidental of less than 5 percent). True or false?
True
Common statistical tests are:
Chi-square and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Which test is used to determine whether there is a relationship between two or more categorical variables?
Chi-square test
Which test can be used to determine if multiple groups are statistically significant?
ANOVA (analysis of variance)
What does ANOVA stand for?
Analysis of variance
A finding is statistically significant if it could have occurred fewer than _____% of the time.
5%
People may behave differently when they know they are being watched
Observer effect / Hawthorn effect
In a research study, participants recorded the number of cups of coffee drunk per day. ‘Number of cups of coffee drunk per day’ is referred to as a:
variable
High achieving people select medium difficulty tasks because they offer the most _____________.
uncertainty
When presented with findings of psychological research it is not uncommon for people to comment that the results are trivial, obvious and they knew it all along. This tendency is referred to as:
hindsight bias
When two observers watching the same behaviours show a high level of agreement in their coding, the coding system is said to be:
reliable
In experimental research, the independent variable is _________ by the researcher.
manipulated
Animal research has declined slightly in recent years, TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
If the participants in a study were not aware whether they consumed coffee or the placebo and the experimenters were also unaware of what the participants consumed, this is an example of:
A double-blind study
A young man is interested in making a good impression on the parents of the person he is currently dating. Because of this, when he meets them he over-emphasises his good qualities and ignores many of his short comings. This man’s behaviour is most relevant to which bias?
Social desirability bias
A subject in a signal-detection study is bold in her decisions about the presence of a target stimulus. As a result, she has more hits, but she also has more false alarms. This is an example of how ______________ characteristics can affect decision criteria.
participant
A tentative explanation or prediction about some phenomenon
hypothesis
An __________ defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure it
operational definition
A method of organising the data to show how frequently participants received each of the many possible scores.
Frequency distribution
A statistical technique that allows researchers to combine findings from various studies
Meta-analysis
Research that is grounded in the active participation of the people who are the focus of the study
Participatory research
The percentage of scores that fall below a score
Percentile
A measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and lowest value in a variable obtained in a sample
Range
The likelihood that the results of a study did not simply occur by chance
Statistical significance
_____ research usually considered gold standard.
Experimental
Researchers can influence participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis (threat to internal validity)
Experimenter expectancy effects
What are the 3 main goals for scientific approach?
Description
Prediction
Understanding
What design usually employed by psychologists when experiments are impractical?
quasi-experimental designs
1 The _______ is the most frequent score in the sample. The _______ is the score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores. The _______ is the statistical average of the scores.LO5.1S
A median; mode; mean
B frequency; central tendency; mean
C mode; median; mean
D mean; median; average
C mode; median; mean
2 In which of the following cases would the median be the most useful measure of central tendency?LO5.1S
A When there are no outliers in a set of scores.
B When the scores are evenly distributed.
C When students in a class all score between sixty and seventy on an exam with a hundred questions.
D When there are extreme scores in a distribution (i.e., the data is skewed).
D When there are extreme scores in a distribution (i.e., the data is skewed).
3 The standard deviation refers to:LO5.1S
A the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample.
B the extent to which scores tend to differ from the median of the sample.
C a summary of the data.
D the difference between the highest and the lowest scores of the sample.
A the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample.
4 If a student’s score in an exam fell in the 2nd percentile the:LO5.1S
A student did exceptionally well on the exam.
B student’s score was 2 standard deviations below the mean.
C student scored 2 percent lower than the average score.
D student’s score was 2 standard deviations above the mean.
B student’s score was 2 standard deviations below the mean.
5 What information does the effect size give about statistically significant findings?LO5.1S
A Nothing — it refers to the size of the sample used
B The magnitude of the experimental effect as expressed by Pearson’s r
C The strength of the relationships between variables as expressed by the p value
D The strength of the relationships between variables as expressed by the alpha level
B The magnitude of the experimental effect as expressed by Pearson’s r
6 Which of the following is NOT true of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests?LO5.2S
A They use the same type of statistical procedure as t tests.
B They assess the likelihood that mean differences among groups occurred by chance.
C They are used to test relationships between groups of categorical variables.
D If no group differences exist between two groups, then there should be little or no difference between the group means.
C They are used to test relationships between groups of categorical variables.
7 A probability value (p value) represents the:LO5.2S
A likelihood that test findings will be meaningful in a given population.
B probability that participants will differ from each other.
C likelihood that test findings are spurious when p > .05.
D probability that positive findings occurred due to chance.
D probability that positive findings occurred due to chance.
8 Participatory Action Research (PAR) involves: LO5.2S
A experimentation, data collection, inferential statistics and hypothesis testing.
B reflection, experimentation, collective inquiry and collaborative action.
C collective inquiry, active research, experimentation and minimising data wastage.
D collaborative action, collective inquiry, experimentation and hypothesis testing.
B reflection, experimentation, collective inquiry and collaborative action.
9 A researcher was interested in the effects of online gaming behaviour on sleep habits. Seventy gamers and seventy non-gamers were asked the average number of hours they slept per night. Participants were then split into two groups: people that slept > six hours and people that slept < six hours per night. Fifty-three gamers and 24 non-gamers slept for < six hours per night. Which statistical test would the researcher use to find out if this difference was statistically significant?LO5.2S
A Correlation
B Chi-square test
C Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
D t test
B Chi-square test
10 Which of the following statements is true regarding the ‘replicability crisis’? LO5.2S
A Researchers often use unconventional tests of statistical significance to increase the probability that their research will be published.
B Non-significant findings can be as meaningful as significant findings.
C It refers to the use of flawed methodology meaning study findings can never be replicated.
D Non-significant findings are never as meaningful as significant findings
B Non-significant findings can be as meaningful as significant findings.
Two testers who rate the same person on the same variable, should give similar ratings to the participant
Inter-rater reliability
SELECT THE MOST ACCURATE ANSWER: A mixed methods research design would entail…
a. The integration of an experimental design and an observation design
b. The collection and analysis of descriptive and inferential data
c. The integration of quantitative and qualitative research data in a study
d. None of the above
c. The integration of quantitative and qualitative research data in a study
Descriptive designs are concerned with _______ behaviour, correlational designs are concerned with ________ behaviour and experimental designs are concerned with
_____________ behaviour
a. Predicting; describing; establishing causation of
b. Describing; correlating; establishing causation of
c. Observing; predicting; predicting
d. Describing; predicting; establishing causation of
d. Describing; predicting; establishing causation of
Case studies, naturalistic observations and survey research are most commonly used in what type of research method?
a. Experimental
b. Correlational
c. Descriptive
d. B and C
c. Descriptive
Which of the following statements would be the most accurate for a correlational study
a. This study found that depression was caused by genetic factors and environmental factors
b. The current findings suggest there is a strong relationship between genes and anxiety among high school students
c. This study proves that traumatic experiences have a large effect on mental health
d. It is evident there was a significant difference between Group A and Group B
b. The current findings suggest there is a strong relationship between genes and anxiety among high school students
____________ refers to the ability to produce consistent measurements over time, or amongst items in a scale of measurement.
a. Internal Validity
b. Generalisability
c. Reliability
d. External Validity
c. Reliability
Which procedure helps to ensure that the participants in a survey are representative of a larger population?
random sampling
Researchers use experiments rather than other research methods in order to distinguish between
causes and effects
What is the measure of the relationship between two variables?
Correlation
An extraneous variable, that systematically changes alongside the IV so it can cause the change in DV
confounding variable
Individual differences between participants and the ways in which each participant varies from the other
e.g., Eyesight/ IQ /age
participant variable
How can investigator effects be controlled?
- Using the same researcher for all participants
- Double blind - neither participants or researcher is aware of what the conditions are
What are the 3 types of experimental designs ?
- Repeated Measures
- Independent Groups
- Matched Pairs
What are some advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures ?
Advantages = participant variables are controller
Disadvantages = demand characteristics are likely to be experienced / order effects may be experienced
Conducting an experiment requires systematically going through a series of six steps, they are:
(1) framing a hypothesis;
(2) operationalising variable;
(3) developing a standardised procedure;
(4) selecting and assigning participants;
(5) applying statistical techniques;
(6) drawing conclusions.
HVPPTC: Horrible Vampires Prefer Participants Than Candy
Limitations of experimentation?
- Bring complex case to lab
- Don’t apply outside lab
What critical reader should ask/ evaluate a study?
Question about:
1.theoretical framework
2.sample
3.measure
4.procedure
5. results
6. the broader conclusions
7. ethics of research
potential downsides of psychology research on the internet?
- sampling bias,
- uncontrolled data collection procedures,
- protecting the welfare of participants
- ensuring participants’ right to confidentiality.
using experiments or surveys to gather data that can be statistically analysed to test particular hypotheses.
Quantitative research
three major goals of research study:
1.describe,
2.predict
3.explain / understand
In 3 major research goals:
If they tells “what” occurred, which goal meet?
Description
In 3 research goals, which goal is higher-level research goal that aims to identify when and under what conditions a future. Behaviour or mental process is likely to occur.
Prediction
In 3 research goals,
If they tells “why” a behaviour or mental process occurred, what goal the research meet?
Explanation
A ____ is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations
theory
A ______ is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables. It predicts the findings that should be observed if the theory is correct
hypothesis
A ______ is any phenomenon that can differ, or vary, from one situation to another or from one person to another; in other words, a variable is a characteristic that can take on different values
variable
_______ refers to the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher.
Generalisability
______ _____ refers to the tendency of a test to yield relatively similar scores for the same individual over time.
Retest reliability
A measure is _____ _____ if several ways of asking the same question yield similar results.
internally consistent
The third kind of reliability is ________reliability— if two different interviewers rate an individual on some dimension, both should give the person similar scores
interrater
______ is applied to a psychological measure, it refers to the measure’s ability to assess the variable it is supposed to assess.
validity
To ensure the _____ of a psychological measure, researchers conduct ______ research
validity;
validation
The founding from The Māori Cognitive and IQ tests lower than European participants, because the two cognitive tests assumed a ____ level of knowledge regarding business terminology.
___ ____ and ____may be the key explanation for any group differences (Lilienfeld et al., 2010), not lack of ability.
prior;
social disadvantage;
prejudice
Tests are considered biased if two conditions are met:
(a) if systematic differences are found between the mean scores of different groups of people
(b) if the test scores make incorrect predictions in reallife.
Which is the correct sequence of goals to be achieved in scientific psychology?
a. Description of behaviour, prediction of when a certain behaviour will be observed,
explaining the behaviour, and facilitating changes in behaviour
b. Description of behaviour, explaining the behaviour, predicting when a certain behaviour
will be observed, and facilitating changes in behaviour
c. Description of behaviour, facilitating changes in behaviour, predicting when a certain
behaviour will be observed, explaining the behaviour
d. Description of behaviour, explaining the behaviour, facilitating changes in behaviour,
predicting when a certain behaviour will be observed
a. Description of behaviour, prediction of when a certain behaviour will be observed,
explaining the behaviour, and facilitating changes in behaviour
Dr. Marqueta believes that “misery loves company.” Based on this belief, Dr. Marqueta predicts that
people who have received bad news will seek out other people. Dr. Marqueta’s belief is an example of
____, and her prediction is an example of ____.
a. a hypothesis; a theory
b. a theory; a hypothesis
c. a variable; an application
d. a hypothesis; a variable
B
Mrs. Smith, an elementary school teacher, believes that girls are smarter than boys. She predicts that the
girls in her class will learn more than the boys during the school year. Her prediction is a(n)
a. hypothesis.
b. opinion.
c. fact.
d. theory
A. Hypothesis
A theory is
a. an objective description of behavior.
b. a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
c. the application of research to practical problems.
d. a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
b. a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
Most typically, researchers report their findings
a. by holding a press conference.
b. in a book.
c. in a scientific magazine.
d. in a journal.
d. in a journal.
A dependent variable in an experiment refers to the variable
a. held constant across the experimental conditions.
b. deliberately manipulated by the experimenter.
c. that changes value because of the systematic manipulation in the experiment.
d. that the experimenter is depending on to cause something to happen in the experiment.
c. that changes value because of the systematic manipulation in the experiment.
The experimental group
a. consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment with regard to the independent
variable.
b. consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment with regard to the dependent
variable.
c. consists of the subjects who do not receive the special treatment.
d. must be chosen so as to be as different from the control group as possible.
a. consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment with regard to the independent
variable.
The main advantage associated with the experimental method is
a. its precise control.
b. its ability to duplicate real life in the laboratory.
c. that it can be used to explore just about everything.
d. participants usually enjoy taking part in the study.
a. its precise control.
Trevor plans to study the relationship between people’s responses to highly stressful situations and their
overall health. He decides he must use correlational research, rather than experimental research, to
investigate this problem. Trevor most likely chose a correlational method because correlational studies
a. tend to be more accurate than experiments.
b. have higher internal validity than experiments when there are two dependent variables.
c. can be used to study either positive or negative relationships, whereas experiments can
only be used to study positive relationships.
d. can be used to investigate factors that would be unethical to manipulate in an experimental
study.
d. can be used to investigate factors that would be unethical to manipulate in an experimental
study.
Placebos are used in research to control for
a. nontreatment effects.
b. the subjects’ expectations about treatment.
c. secondary drug effects.
d. random fluctuations in the independent variable.
b. the subjects’ expectations about treatment.
Deception is used in some research in order to
a. help control for placebo effects.
b. help aid in double-blind procedures.
c. prevent socially desirable responding.
d. encourage socially desirable responding.
a. help control for placebo effects.
______research, attempts to describe phenomena as they exist rather than to manipulate variables
descriptive
___two variables means to assess the extent to which being high or low on one measure predicts being high or low on the other.
correlate
A research method has feature of holistic view, inductive approaching, inquiry is naturalistic, which one is that?
Qualitative research
