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Anatomy Lab > Week 6 Study Cards > Flashcards

Week 6 Study Cards Flashcards

1
Q

What are neural pathways in which reflexes occur over

A

reflex arcs

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2
Q

what are reflexes?

A

rapid, predictable, involuntary motor responses to stimuli

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3
Q

What are the two classification of reflexes?

A

autonomic and somatic

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4
Q

What are autonomic reflexes?

A

are not subject to conscious control

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5
Q

What are somatic reflexes?

A

all reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscle

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6
Q

What do autonomic reflexes activate?

A

smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and the glands of the body and they regulate body functions such as digestion and blood pressure

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7
Q

What are the 5 parts of the reflex arc?

A

1) receptor
2) sensory neuron
3) integration center
4) motor neuron
5) effector

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8
Q

What is the receptor?

A

reacts to a stimulus

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9
Q

What is a sensory neuron

A

conducts the afferent impulses to the CNS

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10
Q

What is the integration center?

A

consists of one or more synapses in the CNS

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11
Q

What is the motor neuron?

A

conducts the efferent impulses from the integration center to an effector

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12
Q

What is the effector?

A

muscle fibers or glands that respond to the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting a product, respectively

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13
Q

What is monosynaptic?

A

one synapse reflex arc

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14
Q

What is polysynaptic?

A

one or more association neuron in the reflex arc pathway

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15
Q

What is synapse?

A

point of close contact between the neurons or a neuron and an effector cell

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16
Q

What is stretch reflexes?

A

important postural reflexes that act to maintain posture, balance, and locomotion

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17
Q

How are stretch reflexes produced?

A

by tapping a tendon which stretches the attached muscle

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18
Q

What does the stretching of the tendon stimulate?

A

muscle spindles and causes reflex contraction of the stretched muscle to resist further stretching

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19
Q

What is patellar reflex?

A

when knee ligament is tapped leg jerks forward

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20
Q

What is the achilles reflex?

A

assesses the first two sacral segments of the spinal cord which causes foot to dorsiflex

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21
Q

What is superficial cord reflexes?

A

abdominal and plantar reflexes

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22
Q

what are superficial cord reflexes initiated by?

A

stimulation of receptors in the skin and mucosae

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23
Q

What do the superficial cord reflexes depend upon?

A

both the brain participation and on the cord level reflex arc

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24
Q

What is plantar reflex?

A

stimulating the cutaneous receptors in the sole of the foot that cause the toes to flex and move closer together

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25
Q

What is the corneal relex?

A

reflex mediated through the trigeminal nerve by touching the eye which causes them to blink

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26
Q

What is the pupillary light reflex?

A

pupil adjusts to light by dilating or constricting

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27
Q

What is consensual reflexes?

A

one sense on one side and it does it on the other

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28
Q

What is contralateral response?

A

when a reflex is observed on one side of the body when the other side was stimulated

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29
Q

What is ipsilateral response?

A

reflex only occurs on the side where stimulation occurs

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30
Q

What are special sense receptors?

A

large, complex sensory organs (eyes or ears) or localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium)

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31
Q

What is the diameter of the adult human eye?

A

2.5 cm (1 inch)

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32
Q

Anteriorly, what is each eye protected by?

A

an eyelid

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33
Q

What are the medial and lateral junctions of the upper and lower eyelids referred to as?

A

medial and lateral commissures (canthi)

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34
Q

What lines the internal surface of the eyelids and continues over the anterior surface of the eyeball to the outer edge of the cornea where it fuses with the corneal epithelium?

A

conjunctiva mucous membrane

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35
Q

What is the function of the conjunctiva?

A

secrete mucous which lubricates the eyeball

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36
Q

What is inflammation of the conjunctiva?

A

conjunctivitis

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37
Q

What structure projects from the edge of each eyelid?

A

eyelashes

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38
Q

What lies between the eyelashes?

A

ciliary glands

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39
Q

What is the function of the ciliary glands between the eyelashes?

A

lubricate the eyeball

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40
Q

What is the inflammation of one of the ciliary glands?

A

sty

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41
Q

What is located posterior to the eyelashes?

A

tarsal glands

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42
Q

What is the function of the tarsal glands?

A

secrete an oily substance

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43
Q

What consists of the lacrimal gland and a system of ducts?

A

lacrimal apparatus

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44
Q

What lies superior and lateral to each eye?

A

lacrimal glands

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45
Q

What is the function of the lacrimal glands?

A

continually release a dilute salt solution (tears) onto the anterior surface of the eyeball through small ducts

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46
Q

What do the tears produced first flush into?

A

lacrimal canaliculi

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47
Q

What do the tears flush into after the lacrimal canaliculi?

A

lacrimal sac

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48
Q

After the lacrimal sac, where do the tears flush?

A

nasolacrimal duct

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49
Q

Where does the nasolacrimal duct empty into?

A

the nasal cavity

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50
Q

What is the purpose of lacrimal fluid?

A

to cleanse and protect the eye surface as it moistens and lubricates it

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51
Q

How many eye muscles are attached to the exterior surface of each eyeball

A

six

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52
Q

What is the lateral rectus?

A

moves eye laterally

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53
Q

What is the medial rectus?

A

moves eye medially

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54
Q

What is the superior rectus?

A

elevates eye and turns it medially

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55
Q

What is the inferior rectus?

A

depresses eye and turns it medially

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56
Q

What is the inferior oblique?

A

elevates eye and turns it laterally

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57
Q

What is the superior oblique?

A

depresses eye and turns it laterally

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58
Q

What is the outermost part of the eye and is a protective later

A

fibrous layer

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59
Q

What is the fibrous layer composed of?

A

dense connective tissue

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60
Q

The fibrous layer is composed of what two regions?

A

sclera and cornea

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61
Q

What is the sclera?

A

opaque white area is seen anteriorly as the white of the eye and forms the bulk of the fibrous tunic

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62
Q

What is the cornea?

A

transparent through which light enters the eye

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63
Q

What is myopia?

A

near sighted

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64
Q

What is hyperopia?

A

far sighted

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65
Q

The eye is not acellular, but rather

A

avascular

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66
Q

what is the middle tunic?

A

uvea

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67
Q

Which layer of the eye is vascular?

A

middle tunic

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68
Q

What is the posterior part of the middle tunic?

A

choroid

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69
Q

What is the choroid?

A

a blood rich area and contains a dark pigment to prevent light scattering within the eye

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70
Q

Anteriorly the choroid is modified to form what?

A

ciliary body

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71
Q

What is attached to the ciliary body?

A

lens and the iris

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72
Q

What is the round opening in the iris?

A

pupil through which light passes

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73
Q

What is the iris composed of?

A

circularly and radially arranged smooth muscle fibers and acts like the diaphragm of a camera to regulate the amount of light entering the eye

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74
Q

In close vision and bright light what muscles in the iris contract?

A

circular muscle

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75
Q

In distant vision and dim light what contracts in the iris?

A

radial fibers

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76
Q

What is the innermost layer of the eye?

A

sensory layer

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77
Q

What is the sensory layer also known as?

A

retina

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78
Q

What happens to light when it enters the eye?

A

it bends

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79
Q

What is the transparent layer that extends anteriorly only to the ciliary body

A

neural (nervous tissue) layer

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80
Q

What does the neural layer contain?

A

rods and cones

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81
Q

What is the function of the rods and cones?

A

begin the chain of electrical events that pass from the photoreceptors to bipolar cells and then to the ganglion cells

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82
Q

What is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball?

A

optic disc or blind spot

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83
Q

What is lateral to each blind spot?

A

macula lutea (yellow spot)

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84
Q

What is the macula lutea?

A

an area of high cone density

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85
Q

Where is the macula lutea located?

A

in the middle of the fovea centralis

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86
Q

What is the fovea centralis

A

a minute pit which contians only cones and is the area of greatest visual acuity

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87
Q

What is light entering the eye focused through?

A

lens

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88
Q

What is the lens held up in place by?

A

ciliary zonule

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89
Q

What is the ciliary zonule?

A

attached to ciliary body

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90
Q

The lens divides the eye into what two segments?

A

anterior segment and the posterior segment

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91
Q

What is the anterior segment?

A

anterior to the lens and contains a clear watery fluid

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92
Q

What is the clear watery fluid?

A

aqueous humor

93
Q

What is the posterior segment?

A

behind the lens and is filled with a gel-like substance

94
Q

What is the gel-like substance?

A

vitreous humor, vitreous body

95
Q

Where is the aqueous humor formed?

A

by the capillaries of the ciliary body

96
Q

What is the function of aqeuous humor?

A

maintain the introcular pressure of the eye and provides nutrients for the avascular lens and cornea

97
Q

Where is aqueous humor reabsorbed?

A

scleral venous sinus (canal of schlemm)

98
Q

Where is the scleral venous sinus located?

A

junction of the sclera and cornea

99
Q

What is the function of vitreous humor?

A

reinforces the posterior part of the eyeball and keeps it pushed into its socket

100
Q

When light passes from one substance to another with a different density its velocity or speed of transmission changes and the rays are bent or what

A

refracted

101
Q

What causes the light to change its shape?

A

lens refractive strength by changing shape

102
Q

What is accommodation?

A

ability of the eye to focus specifically for close objects

103
Q

What is the image formed on the retina as a result of the light-bending activity of lens called?

A

a real image

104
Q

What is the normal eye also called?

A

emmetropic eye

105
Q

What are some visual problems?

A

lenses that are too strong or too lazy, structural problems such as an eyeball that is too long or too short, cornea or lens with improper curvatures

106
Q

What is nearsightedness?

A

They can see close objects without difficulty but distant objects are blurred or indistinct

107
Q

What is the correction of nearsightedness?

A

concave lens

108
Q

What happens if the image focuses behind the retina?

A

farsightedness?

109
Q

What is farsightedness?

A

don’t have problems with distant vission but cant see upclose

110
Q

What is the correction of farsightedness?

A

convex lense

111
Q

Irregularities in the curvature of the lens and or the cornea lead to a blurred vision called what

A

astigmatism

112
Q

What is the condition that results when the elasticity of the lens decreases dramatically with age, resulting in difficulty in focusing for close vision

A

presbyopia

113
Q

How can lens elasticity be measured?

A

near point of accommodation

114
Q

What are the three cone types?

A

red, blue, green

115
Q

What are intrinsic muscles?

A

controlled by autonomic nervous system are those of the ciliary body and the radial and circular muscles of the iris

116
Q

What are the extrinsic muscles?

A

rectus and oblique muscles which are attached to the outside of the eyeball

117
Q

What is convergence?

A

medial eye movement which is essential for near vision, both eye aimed toward the same object

118
Q

the ear is divided into what three main areas?

A

external ear, middle ear, internal ear

119
Q

What is the function of outer and middle ear?

A

sense of hearing only

120
Q

What is the function of the inner ear?

A

hearing reception and equilibrium

121
Q

What is composed of the outer/external ear

A

auricle or pinna, and external acoustic meatus

122
Q

What is the pinna?

A

the skin covered cartilage encircling the auditory canal opening

123
Q

WHat is the external acoustic meatus?

A

auditory canal, short narrow chamber carved into the temporal bone

124
Q

What is the auditory canal lined with??

A

wax-secreting glands called ceruminous glands

125
Q

The sound waves enter the canal and hit what?

A

tympanic membrane

126
Q

What is the tympanic membrane?

A

eardrum that separates the outer ear from the middle ear

127
Q

What is the middle ear?

A

small air filled chamber- the typanic cavity within the temporal bone

128
Q

What is contained in the middle ear?

A

auditory ossicles

129
Q

What are the auditory ossicles?

A

hammer, anvil, stirrup

130
Q

What is the function of the auditory ossicles?

A

transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to fluids of the inner ear

131
Q

What do the auditory ossicles transmit the signals to the inner ear through?

A

oval window

132
Q

What connects the middle ear chamber with the nasopharynx?

A

pharyngotympanic auditory tube

133
Q

What is the pharyngotympanic tube function?

A

opened temporarily to equilize the pressure of the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure

134
Q

Why is this function important (air pressure releasing)?

A

eardrum cannot vibrate properly

135
Q

What is the internal of inner ear?

A

bony and rather toruous chamber called osseous, bony, labryinth

136
Q

What is the bony labryinth filled with?

A

perilymph

137
Q

What is floating in the perilymph?

A

membranous labyrinth

138
Q

What is the membranous labryinth filled with?

A

more viscous fluid called endolymph

139
Q

What are the three subdivisions of the bony labryinth?

A

cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals

140
Q

What shape is the cochlea?

A

snail shaped

141
Q

What does the cochlea contain?

A

receptors for hearing

142
Q

What is the cochlear membranous labyrinth, a soft wormlike tube about 1 1/2 inches long that winds through turms of the cochlea?

A

cochlear duct

143
Q

What is the upper chamber of the cochlea?

A

scala vestibuli

144
Q

What does the scala vestibuli abut?

A

oval window

145
Q

What is the lower chamber?

A

scala tympani

146
Q

What does the scala tympani abut?

A

round window

147
Q

What does the cochlear duct support?

A

spiral organ of Corti

148
Q

What does the spiral organ of Corti contain?

A

receptors for hearing and nerve endings of the cochlear division of the vestibulochlear nerve

149
Q

What do the hair cells rest on?

A

basilar membrane

150
Q

What does the basilar membrane form?

A

the floor of the cochlear duct

151
Q

What doe the hair project into?

A

tectorial membrane that overlies it

152
Q

What is the roof of the cochlear duct?

A

vestibular membrane

153
Q

What is the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear?

A

vestibular and semicircular canal portions of the bony labryinth

154
Q

What does the vestibular contain?

A

saclike utricle and the saccule and the semicircular chambers containing membranous semicircular ducts

155
Q

What are the semicircular ducts?

A

suspended in perilymph in the bony chambers, filled with endolymph, contain receptor cells that are activated by the disturbance of their cilia

156
Q

What do the semicircular ducts house?

A

dynamic equilibrium receptors

157
Q

What is at the base of each semicircular duct (enlarged area)

A

ampulla

158
Q

What does the ampulla contain?

A

receptor region called crista ampullaris

159
Q

What does the crista ampullaris covered in?

A

tuft of hair cells with a gelatinous cap

160
Q

What is this gelatinous cap called?

A

cupula

161
Q

What do the membrane sacs in the vestibule contain?

A

maculae

162
Q

What are maculae?

A

static equilibrium receptors that respond to gravitational pull and to linear or straightforwar changes in speed

163
Q

What is the otolithic membrane?

A

a gelatinous material containing small grains of calcium carbonate

164
Q

Where are the otolithic membrane?

A

over the hair cells in each macula

165
Q

what is the second major controlling system in the body

A

endocrine system

166
Q

what does the endocrine system do?

A

helps coordinate and integrate the activity of the body’s cells

167
Q

The nervous system uses neurons and electrical signals. What does the endocrine system use?

A

hormones and their chemical signals

168
Q

What are hormones?

A

chemical messengers released into the blood to be transported throughout the body

169
Q

What are some hormone producing glands?

A

anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroid

170
Q

Where is the pituitary gland situated?

A

sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

171
Q

What are the two functional areas of the pituitary gland?

A

posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary

172
Q

What is the posterior pituitary gland composed of

A

nervous tissue

173
Q

What is the anterior pituitary gland composed of

A

glandular tissue

174
Q

Why is the posterior pituitary gland not an endocrine gland?

A

it does not produce the hormones it releases

175
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland store?

A

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone ADH

176
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

stimulates powerful uterine contractions during birth and causes milk ejection in the lactating mother

177
Q

What is antidiuretic hormone?

A

kidneys to reabsorb more water from the forming urine, reducing urine output to conserve water

178
Q

What does the anterior pituitary secrete?

A

number of hormones

179
Q

What are tropic hormones

A

stimulate target organs that are also endocrine glands to secrete their hormones

180
Q

What are the four tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary?

A

gonadotropins- follicle-stimlating horomone
luteinizing hormone
adrenocorticotropic hormone
thyroid stimulating hormone

181
Q

What is the function of the gonadotropins hormone?

A

regulate gamete production and hormonal activity of gonads

182
Q

What is the function of the adrenocorticotropic hormone?

A

regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal gland

183
Q

What is the function of the thyroid stimulating hormone

A

influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland

184
Q

What are the 2 other hormones of the anterior pituitary that are not directly involved in regulating other endocrine glands?

A

growth hormone

prolactin

185
Q

What is the function of the growth hormone?

A

general metabolic hormone, plays an important role in determining body size

186
Q

What is the function of prolactin?

A

stimulates breast development and promotes and maintains milk production

187
Q

What has been considered the master endocrine gland

A

anterior pituitary because it controls the activity of so many other endocrine glands

188
Q

What causes the anterior pituitary to release its hormones?

A

releasing or inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus

189
Q

What is the general structure of the thyroid?

A

two lobes joined by a central mass or isthmus

190
Q

Where is the thyroid located?

A

throat, inferior to adams apple

191
Q

What are the two major hormones produced by the thyroid?

A

thyroid hormone and calcitonin

192
Q

What is the thyroid hormone function?

A

two active hormones T4 and T3 and is to control the rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation

193
Q

What is the function of calcitonin?

A

decreases blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium deposit in the bones

194
Q

What are follicles of the thyroid gland?

A

spherical sacs containing a pink stained material

195
Q

What is stored in the follicles of the thyroid gland?

A

thyroglobulin

196
Q

What are the cells seen between the follicles

A

parafollicular cells

197
Q

What is the function of parafollicular cells?

A

calcitonin

198
Q

Where are the parathyroid glands located?

A

embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland

199
Q

What does the parathyroid gland secrete?

A

parathyroid hormone

200
Q

What is the function of the parathyroid hormone?

A

regulator of calcium phosphate ion homeostasis of the blood, and causes release of calcium from bone matrixs and causes kidneys to reabsorb more calcium

201
Q

If blood calcium levels fall too low what can occur

A

tetany

202
Q

What is tetany?

A

prolonged muscle spasm, can cause respiratory paralysis and may be fatal

203
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

atop the kidneys

204
Q

Anatomically what does the adrenal medulla develop from?

A

neural tissue

205
Q

How are the adrenal medulla stimulated?

A

nervous system neurons

206
Q

How do the adrenal medulla respond to stimulation

A

releasing epinephrine or norepinephrine

207
Q

What is the function of epinephrine or norepinephrine?

A

acts with the sympathetic nervous system to produce the fight or flight response to stressors

208
Q

The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones called what

A

corticosteroids

209
Q

What are the three hormones produced by adrenal cortex called individually?

A

mineralocorticoids
glucocorticoids,
gonadocorticoids

210
Q

What is the function of mineralocorticoids?

A

aldosterone, which regulates water and electrolyte balance in the extracellular fluids

211
Q

What is the function of glucocorticoids?

A

resist long-term stressors

212
Q

What is the function of gonadocorticoids?

A

sex hormone

213
Q

Where is the pancreas located?

A

partially behind the stomach in the abdomen ands acts as an exocrine and an endocrine gland

214
Q

What does the pancreas release?

A

insulin and glucagon

215
Q

What stimulates the release of insulin?

A

high blood glucose levels

216
Q

What is the function of insulin?

A

decreases blood sugar levels

217
Q

What is the function of glucagon?

A

it stimulates the liver to break down its glycogen stores to glucose and to release the glucose to the blood

218
Q

What stimulates the release of glucagon?

A

too low of blood glucose levels

219
Q

What are the roughly circular endocrine portions of the pancreas?

A

pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)

220
Q

What are alpha cells of the pancreas?

A

produce glucagon

221
Q

What are the beta cells of the pancreas?

A

synthesize insulin

222
Q

Where are the gonads located?

A

in the lower pelvic cavity

223
Q

What are the female gonads?

A

ovaries

224
Q

What do the female gonads produce?

A

female sex cells, two groups of steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone

225
Q

What is the function of estrogen?

A

development of the secondary sex characteristics of the female at puberty

226
Q

What is the function of progesterone?

A

work with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle

227
Q

What are the male gonads?

A

testes

228
Q

What do the testes produce?

A

male sex cells, testosterone

229
Q

What is the function of testosterone

A

produces the maturation of the reproductive system accessory structures

Anatomy Lab (11 decks)

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