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Foundations of Medicine > Week 5 Science and Scholarship : Nervous system > Flashcards

Week 5 Science and Scholarship : Nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

identify the two major anatomical divisions of the nervous system

A

CNS and PNS

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2
Q

what makes up the CNS

A
  • Brain
  • Spinal cord
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3
Q

what makes up the PNS

A
  • Nerves
  • 12 pairs of cranial nerves
  • 31 pairs of spinal nerves
  • Ganglia (collection of neuronal cell bodies)
  • Nerve endings
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4
Q

identify the functional divisions of the NS

A

a) Somatic,Autonomic,Enteric
b) Sensory,Motor,Integrated

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5
Q

what is the function of the somatic NS

A

VOLUNTARY control of body movements via skeletal muscles

  • special senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch etc.
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6
Q

what is the function of the autonomic NS

A

innervation of INVOLUNTARY STRUCTURES to maintain homeostasis e.g. HR,BP,RR,digestion and arousal

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7
Q

what is the function of enteric NS

A
  • involuntary nervous system of digestive tract
  • controls digestion, movement of contents
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8
Q

what is the motor (efferent) NS

A

-regulates both involuntary and voluntary responses
* innervation of PNS effectors (skeletal, smooth, cardiac muscle, glands)

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9
Q

what is the sensory (afferent) NS

A
  • PNS nerve endings (sensory receptors) process input from environment eg via eyes, ears,skin etc
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10
Q

what is the integrated NS

A
  • Integration of sensory & motor information in the CNS.
  • Nerve cells are called interneurons.
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11
Q

identify the characteristics of a neurone

A

excitable
conductive
secretory

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12
Q

what is meant by the neurone being excitable

A

Respond to changes in environment/stimuli

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13
Q

what is meant by the neurone being conductive

A

Transmit electrical signals as action potentials (AP)

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14
Q

what is meant by the neurone being secretory

A

Transmit messages to other cells via the release of chemical messengers called “neurotransmitters”.

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15
Q

What are dendrites and what is their function

A
  • Receive neural stimuli from other neurons.
  • Excitatory/inhibitory in nature.
    -branch like extensions
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16
Q

What is the soma and what is their function

A
  • Houses nucleus & organelles.
  • Metabolic centre which processes/interprets stimuli
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17
Q

What is the axon and what is their function

A

*long, slender Cytoplasmic extension
*Conducts nerve impulse to axon terminals so the message can be relayed to effector cell

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18
Q

What is the axon hillock and what is their function

A
  • Site of Action Potential initiation
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19
Q

What is the myelin sheath and what is their function

A
  • Insulates axon & increases speed and efficiency of AP conduction
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20
Q

What are axon terminals and what is their function

A
  • end of axon that forms synapse with other neurons
  • To communicate with other cells/neurons
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21
Q

What is the node of ranvier and what is their function

A
  • Unmyelinated segments of the axon
  • Impulse “jumps” along these down the axon
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22
Q

what structures are housed in the soma

A

-nucleus
-mitochondria
-rough ER
-golgi
-cytoskeleton

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23
Q

dendritic tree vs dendritic branch

A
  • Dendritic tree = ALL of the dendrites belonging to one neuron
  • Dendritic branch = a single branch of the dendritic tree
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24
Q

where are dendritic receptors found

A

on the dendritic membrane

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25
Q

there is a ___ amount of mitochondria in neutrons

A

high

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26
Q

what are nissl bodies

A

accumulation of ribosomes in neurons

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27
Q

what is axoplasmic transport

A

transport of material between axon terminal and soma

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28
Q

describe the difference between two movements of axoplasmic transport

A
  • Anterograde = towards the axon terminal (Kinesin)
  • Retrograde = towards the soma (Dynein)
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29
Q

what is the synapse

A

-specialised junction between (1) Neuron-Neuron; (2) Neuron-Effector cell

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30
Q

eg of pseudo unipolar/ uni polar neurons

A

sensory neurons

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31
Q

what are bipolar neurons

A

→one main dendrite
→one main axon

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32
Q

eg of bipolar neurons

A

Rare and found in “special sense”

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33
Q
A
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34
Q

identify the ways neurons can be classified

A

-By Shape

  • By Function
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35
Q

what are multipolar neurons

A

→ Two or more dendrites surrounding cell body →One main axon

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36
Q

what’s the Most common neuron in the CNS

A

multipolar neurons

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37
Q

what are Unipolar/Pseudo-unipolar

A
  • Only one axon from cell body
  • Looks like there is only one axon from cell body but branches in two different directions
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38
Q

what are the two overarching steps in neural communication

A

action potential and synapse

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39
Q

what type of impulse is the action potential

A

electrical

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40
Q

what type of impulse is the synapse

A

chemical

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41
Q

define the membrane potential

A

difference in charge between the (electrical potential) extracellular and intracellular environment

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42
Q

identify the resting membrane potential

A

-70 mv
SOAPI PONI

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43
Q

identify the types of gated ion channels

A

voltage gated
chemically/ligand gated
mechanically gated
leakage gated

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44
Q

how do voltage gated ion channels work

A

respond to changes in charge

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45
Q

how do chemically gated ion channels work

A

respond to changes in chemical concentration

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46
Q

how do mechanically gated ion channels work

A

repsond to a mechanical stimulus

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47
Q

how do leakage gated ion channels work

A

-always open
OR
-randomly alternate between open and closed

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48
Q

identify some key characteristics of the Na/K pump

A

-continuously working
-requires ATP
-transports 3 sodium ions and 2 potassium ions against concentration gradient

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49
Q

identify steps of action potential

A

reaching threshold (initiation), depolarisation, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation, and returning to resting

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50
Q

what’s initiation (AP)

A

-all or nothing event
-stimulus reaches threshold at -55mv
-

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51
Q

what’s depolarisation (AP)

A

-influx of +ve ions into cell
-voltage gated Na+ channels open
-Na+ into cell
-cell is more positive inside
-voltage increases to +40mv

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52
Q

what’s repolarisation (AP)

A

-voltage gated Na+ channels close
-volatge gated K+ Chanels open
-K+ moves out of cell
-cell becomes more -ve
-resting membrane potential restored (-70mv)

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53
Q

what’s hyperpolarisation (AP)

A

-excess K+ pumped out of cell
-some K+ reenters the cell
-channels recalibrate in the refractory period
-

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54
Q

what’s happening when neurons at rest

A

-Na+ and K+ gated channels closed
-sodium potassium pump maintains voltage at -70 mv
-potassium outside and sodium inside

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55
Q

function of myelin sheath

A

-speed up action potential
-prevents external stimuli entering cell
-prevents axon damage

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56
Q

myelin sheath coat ___ axons

A

longer

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57
Q

node of ranvier function

A

increases rate of action potential conduction
-allows for chain reaction movement (saltatory conduction)

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58
Q

saltatory conduction is ___ than continuous conduction

A

much faster

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59
Q

purpose of an EMG

A

measure electrical activity in resting and contracting muscles

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60
Q

describe surface EMG

A

-non invasive, time efficient but less accurate
-electrodes placed on skin over muscle

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61
Q

describe Intramuscular EMG

A

-thin wires inserted into muscle
-invasive, time consuming but more accurate

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62
Q

structure of synapse

A

space between two neurons or a neuron and muscle gland

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63
Q

function of synapse

A

allows for chemical communication between two neurons or neuron and muscle

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64
Q

Define the sequence of events of synaptic transmission

A

-neurotransmitters packaged into vesciles at pre synaptic neuron
-vesicles mobilise and dock at presynaptic cell membrane
-action potential reaches the terminal end of the pre synaptic neuron
-volted gated Ca++ channels open, depolarising membrane
-neurotransmitters in vesicles exit axon terminal via exocytosis
-neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft
-neurotransmitters bind to receptors on post synaptic neuron
-post synaptic potential is stimulated
-another action potential generated

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65
Q

when are electrical synapses present

A

-when cells utilise gap junctions

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66
Q

what is the role of neurotransmitters

A

chemical messenger molecules that transmits signals from a neuron to target cell across a synapse. by binding to receptors on post synaptic cell
-can cause excitatory or inhibitory message

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67
Q

synapse vs neuromuscular junction

A

synapse b/w two neurons vs neuromuscular junction between a neuron and muscle

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68
Q

eg of excitatory neurotransmitter

A

glutamate

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69
Q

eg of inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA

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70
Q

what do excitatory neurotransmitters do

A

make the AP on PSN more likely to fire
-promotes depolarisation

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71
Q

what kind of channels are found on PSN

A

chemically/ligand gated

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72
Q

what do inhibitory neurotransmitters do

A

make the AP on PSN less likely to fire
-promotes hyperpolarisation

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73
Q

Ach can be _ or _

A

excitatory or inhibitory depending on whether it binds to skeletal or cardiac muscle respectively

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74
Q

what happens to unbound neurotransmitters

A

-removed or recycled by ezynmes, glial cells, pre synaptic cell

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75
Q

identify two ways the neurotransmitters transmit their signals in the PSN

A

ionotropic or metabotropic

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76
Q

what’s ionotropic neurotransmission

Express post

A

-ligand gated channels
-open and close in response to neurotransmitters binding

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77
Q

what’s metabotropic neurotransmission

AUS post

A

-Senses ligand-binding & activates secondary messengers
→ activates other effector proteins:
→ causes signalling cascades within the cell
-Impacts metabolic pathways, membrane permeability etc
-G coupled receptors

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78
Q

identify the two categories of neurotransmitters

A

-amino acid (fast)
-classical amine (slower)

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79
Q

neurons that utilise amino acid neurotransmitters are called

A

amino acidergic

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80
Q

identify the 3 categories of neurons that use classical amine neurotransmitters

A

“catecholaminergic”
“serotonergic”
“cholinergic”

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81
Q

key features of glutamate

A

(+)
-amino acid class
-memory and learning

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82
Q

key features GABA

A

(-)
-amino acid
-reduce neuronal excitabiltiy

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83
Q

outline the main precursor for classical amine neurotransmitters

A

Tyrosine → L-Dopa → Dopamine → Norepinephrine → Epinephrine

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84
Q

features of dopamine

A

+/-
-classical amine
-euphoria and reward

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85
Q

function of noradrenaline

A

+
-Concentration, consciousness

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86
Q

features of adrenaline

A

+
-classical amine
-mood and behaviour

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87
Q

function of serotonin

A

(-)
-classical amine
-mood, behaviour

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88
Q

serotonin is derived from

A

trp

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89
Q

function of Ach

A

+/-
classical amine
regulates physiological functions

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90
Q

describe two main receptor families for Ach

A

-Nicotinic (ionotropic)
-Muscarinic (metabotropic)

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91
Q

what are excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)

A

EPSPs can add together/summate for a larger “net” effect to make the post-synaptic neuron even more likely to produce an action potential

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92
Q

describe two ways of EPSP summation

A

-Spatial summation = when there are enough synapses close together
* Temporal summation = when the post-synaptic membrane is depolarized in rapid succession

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93
Q

what are inhibitory post synaptic potentials (IPSP)

A

Local changes in the membrane
potential that makes a post-synaptic
neuron less likely to generate an action
potential

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94
Q

distinguish between graded vs action potentials

A

-GP is a graded response vs AP is all or nothing
-GP generated by ligand gated ion channels vs AP is generated by voltage gated ion channel
-GP is transmitted over short distance vs AP transmitted over longer distance (axon)
-GP may lose its signal (‘fizzle out’) vs AP that remains as strong starting from axon hillock
-GP can summate vs AP can not summate

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95
Q

identify 5 divisions of brain

A

telencephalon
diencephalon
mesencephalon
metencephalon
myelencephalon

(td sty)

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96
Q

white matter =

A

inner brain (myelinated axons )

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97
Q

grey matter =

A

outer brain ( dendrites, glial cells, and capillaries + cell body)

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98
Q

why is white matter white

A

White matter is white due to the myelin sheath surrounding the axon

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99
Q

what are gyri and sulci

A

gyri (folds) and sulci (grooves)

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100
Q

what is a fissure

A

deep sulci

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101
Q

what structure protects the Brain

A

meninges

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102
Q

term used to describe top of brain

A

dorsal

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103
Q

term used to describe bottom of brain

A

ventral

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104
Q

what’s a nerve

A

a set of axons in the periphery

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105
Q

what’s a nucleus

A

cluster of neuronal cell bodies within the CNS

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106
Q

what’s a ganglion

A

cluster of neuronal cell bodies usually outside of CNS

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107
Q

where is the medulla found

A

hindrbain : myelencephalon

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108
Q

function of medulla oblongata

A
  • Functionally & anatomically similar to the spinal cord
  • Responsible for vital reflexes eg breathing
    -heart rate , salivation ,coughing, sneezing
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109
Q

where are the pons and cerebellum found

A

in the hindbrain: metencephalon

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110
Q

function of the pons

A
  • Pathway for information flow to- and
    from- the cerebellum
  • Works with the medulla and other parts of the brain to increase arousal
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111
Q

function of cerebellum

A
  • Regulates motor movement, balance & coordination
  • Vital for shifting attention between auditory & visual stimuli
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112
Q

identify the structures of the midbrain / mesencephalon

A

-tectum ‘roof’
-tegmentum ‘floor’
-crus cerebri /Cerebral Peduncles

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113
Q

function of the tectum

A
  • superior colliculus: visual
  • inferior colliculus: auditory
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114
Q

how many coliculi in the tectum

A

4 (A/P + L/R)

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115
Q

function of tegmentum

A
  • substantia nigra: dopamine production
  • periaqueductal grey (PAG): pain suppression
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116
Q

function of crus cerebri

A
  • large collection of fibre bundles
    connecting
  • cortex and pons > cerebellum * cortex and spinal cord
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117
Q

identify structures of diencephalon

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

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118
Q

function of thalamus

A

Relay station for sensory & motor information

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119
Q

function of hypothalamus

A
  • Regulates the internal environment of the body
    • Controls the release of specific hormones (from pituitary gland)
    • Affects “drive states”: hunger, thirst, sexual behaviour
    • Regulate emotional states: fear, anger
    • Important for regulating body temperature & blood chemistry
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120
Q

outer region of telencephalon is

A

the cerebral cortex

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121
Q

identify the 2 main subcortical structures of the telencephalon

A

the limbic system and basal ganglia

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122
Q

Outline the functions of the limbic system

A
  • Hippocampus: memory
  • Amygdala: emotion
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123
Q

outline the functions of basal ganglia

A

-Planning and coordinating of movement
* Other cognitive functions (attention, language planning)

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124
Q

describe the structure of cerebral cortex

A

-divided into L/R hemispheres
-contralaterally organised

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125
Q

what does it mean if the brain is gyrencephalic

A
  • brain is folded into a series of “hills”/gyri
  • increase surface area
  • enable complex functions
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126
Q

function of frontal lobe

A

motor, planning, reasoning, judgment

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127
Q

primary motor cortex is in which lobe

A

frontal (pre-central gyrus)

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128
Q

what separates. the frontal and parietal lobe

A

central sulcus

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129
Q

function of parietal lobe

A

Somatosensation

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130
Q

primary somatosensory cortex is in which lobe

A

parietal (post-central grus)

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131
Q

function of temporal lobe

A

language, hearing, memory

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132
Q

Primary auditory area (auditory cortex) is in which lobe

A

temporal lobe

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133
Q

what separates the temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes

A

Sylvian fissure/lateral sulcus

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134
Q

function of the occipital lobe

A

vision

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135
Q

primary visual cortex is in which lobe

A

the occipital

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136
Q

what separates the parietal and occipital lobe

A

parieto-occipital sulcus

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137
Q

what separates the occipital lobe into U/L

A

calacrine sulcus

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138
Q

what’s the 5th lobe

A

insular lobe/ insula

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139
Q

function of insula

A

motor control, decision-making, sensory

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140
Q

what separates L and R hemisphere of the brain

A

longitudinal fissure

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141
Q

how many layers in neocortex

A

6 layers

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142
Q

identify the main cortical cell

A

pyramid cell

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143
Q

identify the cortical fibre types

A

-commissural fibres
-association fibres
-projection fibres

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144
Q

what do commissural fibres do

A

connect two cerebral hemispheres

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145
Q

eg of commissural fibres

A

corpus callosum

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146
Q

identify the parts of corpus callosum

A

-rostrum
-genu (knee bend)
-body
-splenium

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147
Q

function of association fibres

A

connect various parts within the same hemisphere
-gyrus to grus
-lobe to lobe

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148
Q

eg of association fibres

A

cingulum

149
Q

function of projection fibres

A

connects cerebral cortex with subcortical regions (brain stem or SC)

150
Q

eg of projection fibres

A

corona radiata
internal capsule

151
Q

what is BA 1,2,3

A

primary sensory cortex

152
Q

what is BA 4

A

primary motor cortex

153
Q

what does BA mean

A

Brodmanns area

154
Q

what is BA 22

A

Wernickes area

155
Q

what is BA 44

A

brocas area

156
Q

what is BA 17

A

primary visual cortex

157
Q

what is BA 41

A

primary auditory cortex

158
Q

what things protect the brain

A

skeleton (skull and vertebra)
meninges
CSF

159
Q

identify the layers of the meninges from outer to inner

A

dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater

160
Q

features of the dura mater

A

-outermost layer
-support and protection

161
Q

features of the arachnoid mater

A

-filament projections/spiderlike
-enables CSF flow

162
Q

features of Pia mater

A

-innermost layer, lies flush within surface of brain
-very thin

163
Q

where is the subdural space

A

between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater

164
Q

where is the subarachnoid space

A

between the arachnoid mater and the Pia mater

165
Q

what is CSF

A

cerebrospinal fluid

166
Q

briefly describe structure of CSF

A

clear and colourless fluid

167
Q

functions of the CSF

A

-buoyancy and shock absorption/ cushioning
-nourishment (glucose, oxygen…)
-communication, removal of wastes and exchange nutrients

168
Q

how many ventricles in brain

A

4

169
Q

name the ventricles in the brain

A

2 x lateral ventricles
-third and fourth ventricle

170
Q

what produces CSF

A

ependymal cells

171
Q

what is the choroid plexus

A

section of ependymal cells

172
Q

describe the formation of CSF

A

-plasma filtered and tissue fluid forms in thalamus
-this ISF is filtered through the epyndmal cells and CSF forms in the 3rd ventricle

173
Q

describe the movement of CSF

A

-from the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles
-into the interventricular foramen
-into 3rd ventricle
-into cerebral aqueduct
-into choroid plexus of 4th ventricle

THEN

*-into medial aperture –> subarachnoid space, brain and SC
OR
*into lateral aperture–> subarachnoid space, brain and SC

174
Q

how does CSF exit the subarachnoid space

A

via arachnoid granulations into the subdural space (blood vessels of systemic circulation)

175
Q

why is so much blood supply needed for the brain

A

-anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, highly destructive to cerebral tissue
-anaerobic respiration produces much less ATP

176
Q

what is ischaemia

A

decreased oxygen/ blood supply to brain

177
Q

what is infarction

A

region of cell death due to ischaemia

178
Q

what is penumbra

A

region of cells that are functionally compromised but can be salvages with blood flow

179
Q

why is arterial blood important for brain

A

allows delivery of O2 and essential hormones

180
Q

why’s venous blood return important for the brain

A

allows for removal of wastes eg CO2 and lactate

181
Q

identify the 3 branches of the aorta

A

1.Braciocephalic artery
-Right subclavian
-Right common carotid
2.Left common carotid
3.Left subclavian

182
Q

anterior circulation consist of

A

right and left common carotid artery that make up right and left ICA (internal carotid artery)

183
Q

posterior circulation consist of

A

right and left subclavian artery that makes up right and left vertebral artery

184
Q

how much blood supply to the brain is posterior vs anterior

A

anterior 80% vs posterior 20%

185
Q

what links anterior and posterior circulation

A

circle of willis

186
Q

what do the subclavian arteries branch into

A

vertebral Arteies (VA)

187
Q

the VA divide into ____

A

3 arteries
-anterior spinal artery
-posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA)
-posterior spinal arteries

188
Q

function of anterior spinal artery

A

-single artery
-supplies anterior 2/3 of cord and medial medulla

189
Q

function of posterior spinal arteries

A

supplies posterior and lateral spinal chord (1/3)

190
Q

function of PICA

A

-supplies inferior/posterior surface of the medulla
-lateral medulla
-choroid plexus of 4th ventricle

191
Q

basilar artery forms when ___

A

L and R vertebral arteries fuse

192
Q

basilar artery divides into ___

A

posterior cerebral arteries (PCA)
superior cerebellar arteries (SCA)
pontine arteries
anterior inferior cerebellar arteries (AICA)

193
Q

function of AICA

A

-supplies inferolateral pons
-supplies anterolateral surface of cerebellum

194
Q

function of pontine Arteries

A

3-5 small arteries supply pons

195
Q

function of SCA

A

-supplies superior part of cerebellum
-and midbrain

196
Q

function of PCA

A

-supply posterior parts of brain and the basilar artery terminates here

197
Q

what structures makes up the circle of willis

A

– Posterior cerebral arteries
– Posterior communicating arteries – Internal carotid arteries
– Anterior cerebral arteries
– Anterior communicating artery

198
Q

identify the two main branches of the ICA

A

anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery

199
Q

function of ACA

A

Supplies most of the cortex on the superior and anterior medial surface of the brain

200
Q

function of MCA

A

-largest
-supplies 80% of brain

201
Q

what’s a haemmmorhage

A

a burstage

202
Q

what’s a embolism

A

thrombus migrates

203
Q

identify the functions of the limbic system

A

Homeostasis Olfaction Memory Emotion

204
Q

function of the amygdala

A

Emotional response and emotional tagging

205
Q

structure of amygdala

A

almond shaped structure

206
Q

describe location of the parahippocampal gyrus

A

located in the ventromedial temporal lobe

207
Q

structure of hippocampus

A

sea horse shaped

208
Q

function of hippocampus

A

memory maintenance and formation

209
Q

what is explicit memory

A

episodic and semantic memory

210
Q

structure of hypothalamus

A

sits under thalamus

211
Q

function of hypothalamus

A

regulates various physiological response eg thirst, hunger, thermoregulation and hormone secretion

212
Q

function of olfactory cortex

A

-region of brain responsible for interpreting olfactory information (smell)

213
Q

what 3 horizontal structures make up brain stem

A

spinal cord
cerebellum
extended forebrain

214
Q

what 3 longitudinal structures make up brain stem

A

tectum
tegmentum
basal portion

215
Q

how many cranial nerves

A

12 pairs

216
Q

how many nuclei of cranial nerves are in brain stem

A

10 (number 2-12)

217
Q

function of cerebellar peduncles

A

(3 peduncles) connect brain stem to cerebellum allowing information to travel

218
Q

function of reticular formation

A

-Produce neurotransmitters
-Modulation of motor and sensory pathways
-Arousal and consciousness
-Regulate sleep-wake cycles
-Cardiovascular and respiratory control

219
Q

where is the reticular formation

A

Set of interconnected nuclei located throughout the brainstem within the tegmentum

220
Q

function of superior colliculi

A

visual reflexes

221
Q

function of inferior colliculi

A

auditory reflexes

222
Q

identify anterior structures of brain stem

A

-crus cerebri
-pyramidsx2
-olivesx2

223
Q

function of crus cerebi

A

motor pathway

224
Q

function of pyramids

A

motor pathway

225
Q

black structure in midbrain

A

substantia nigra

226
Q

function of the cerebellum

A

coordinate smooth movements, balance and posture, muscle tone

227
Q

what fossa does the cerebellum sit in

A

posterior cranial fossa

228
Q

what layer covers the cerebellum

A

dura- tentorium cerebelli

229
Q

what is the cerebellum divided into

A

two hemispheres

230
Q

what connects the two cerebral hemispheres

A

the vermis

231
Q

gyri of the cerebellum are called

A

folia

232
Q

what separates gyri in the cerebellum

A

fissures

233
Q

grey matter in the cerebellum is called

A

cerebellar cortex

234
Q

white matter in the cerebellum is called

A

arbor vitae
(tree of life)

235
Q

what separates the anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum

A

primary fissure

236
Q

function of the posterolateral fissure of the cerebellum

A

separates the flocculonodular node which lies anterior and inferior to the cerebellar hemispheres.

237
Q

function of horizontal fissure of the cerebellum

A

separates posterior lobe into superior and inferior portions

238
Q

how many cerebellar peduncles

A

3

239
Q

name the cerebellar peduncles

A

1.Superior: midbrain (efferent)
2.Middle: pons (afferent)
3.Inferior: medulla (afferent)

240
Q

identify the functional divisions of the cerebellum

A

Vestibulocerebellum
Spinocerebellum
Cerebrocerebellum

241
Q

function of Vestibulocerebellum

A

eye control and balance

242
Q

function of Spinocerebellum

A

muscle tone and skilled movement
-proprioception

243
Q

describe the structure of the spinal chord

A

-Column of nervous tissue
-ascending (sensory/afferent) and descending (motor/efferent) tract

244
Q

where is white matter in the spinal chord

A

on the periphery

245
Q

where is grey matter in the spinal chord

A

more central

246
Q

what is the dorsal (posterior) root

A

carries afferent (sensory) nerves from PNS to CNS

247
Q

what is the ventral (anterior) root

A

carries efferent (motor) nerves from CNS to PNS

248
Q

when sensory and motor nerves meets it is called

A

spinal nerve

249
Q

what is the dorsal horn

A

collection of nerve cells, houses somatic and visceral sensory nuclei

250
Q

what is the ventral horn

A

collection of nerve cells, houses somatic motor nuclei

251
Q

what is the lateral horn

A

collection of nerve cells, houses visceral motor nuclei

252
Q

function of the grey commissure

A

connects left and right region of SC

253
Q

function of somatic motor neurons

A

somatic motor innervate the skeletal muscles

254
Q

function of visceral motor neurons

A

visceral motor neurons are a part of the autonomic nervous system and innervate glands, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle

255
Q

white matter of spinal chord is divided into

A

dorsal , lateral and ventral column

256
Q

dorsal column is involved with

A

sensory info ONLY

257
Q

ventral column is involved with

A

sensory and motor info ONLY

258
Q

lateral column is involved with

A

sensory and motor info ONLY

259
Q

identify two types of motor function

A

somatic and visceral

260
Q

what are upper motor neurons

A

-begin motor cortex and extend in superior regions off CNS
-synapse with LMN

261
Q

what are lower motor neurons

A

-Originate in brainstem & spinal cord
- Make up descending tracts that innervate muscles & cause contraction

262
Q

where are lower motor neurons most abundant

A

cervical enlargement (supplies upper limbs) and lumbar enlargement (supplies lower limbs)

263
Q

identify the types of lower motor neurones

A

alpha and gamma lower motor neurones

264
Q

function of alpha motor neurons

A

-supply extrafusal muscle fibres (main muscle mass)
-receive input from spinal interneurons, muscle spindles and UMN

265
Q

function of gamma motor neurones

A

-supply intrafusal muscle fibres (proprioceptors)
-detect position sense of muscles and feed it to SC

266
Q

what proprioceptive information does the motor unit receive

A
  1. Muscle Spindles
    *encodes muscle length
    *synapses on αMN
  2. Golgi Tendon organs
    *encodes muscle tension
    *synapses on inhibitory interneurons
267
Q

how is the motor homunculus oriented

A

akin to a man lying down across the longitudinal fissure with feet hanging off

268
Q

function of the pyramidal motor system

A
  • Motor Planning & initiation
269
Q

function of basal ganglia

A
  • modulates movements
  • selects & initiates willed
    movements
  • major input to motor cortex
270
Q

define reflex

A

A reflex is a rapid, subconscious sequence of actions in response to a stimulus which can be either:
(1) unlearned or inborn
(2) learned or acquired

271
Q

outline the mechanism of a reflex

A

Receptor – site of stimulus transduction
Sensory neuron – transmits afferent impulses to CNS
Integration centre – in the CNS
Motor neuron – conducts efferent impulses from integration centre to the effector
Effector – muscle fibre/glandular cell that produces response (muscle contraction/glandular secretion)

272
Q

what are the ways that reflexes can be classified

A

by system or by number of synapses

273
Q

identify how reflexes are classified by system

A

Spinal
Cranial
Visceral
Somatic

Superficial
Deep tendon

274
Q

difference between a spinal and cranial reflex

A

spinal– integration happens in the spinal cord eg patellar
Cranial – integration happens in the brainstem eg moving eyes

275
Q

superficial vs deep tendon reflex

A

Superficial – involves stimulation of sensory afferents in the skin;
Deep tendon – involves stimulation of sensory afferents within muscle such as tendons

276
Q

difference between mono and polysynaptic reflex

A

-Monosynaptic – involves only one synapse in the CNS. This synapse is between a single sensory neuron
Polysynaptic – involves two or more synapses in the CNS between sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons

277
Q

identify the grading system for reflex

A

0 Absent
+ present but reduced
++ Normal
+++ Increased, possibly normal
++++ Greatly increased, often associated with clonus

278
Q

what are the categories of sensation

A

exteroception/superficial
proprioception/deep
interoception/visceral
special senses

279
Q

define somatosensation

A

The ability to perceive touch, temperature, pain and body position through action potentials.

280
Q

what makes up exteroception(superficial)

A
  • Pain
  • Temperature
  • Touch
281
Q

pain receptor =

A

nocioreceptor

282
Q

temp receptor =

A

thermoreceptor

283
Q

how is temp and pressure detected

A

temperature-dendrites of unipolar neuron detect temperature
pressure-encapsulated nerve ending of unipolar neuron detects pressure

284
Q

how is gustation detected

A

gustatory receptor detects then releases neurotransmitters which triggers dendrites of the unipolar neuron

285
Q

pain vs nociception

A

Nociception: sensory transduction of signals that triggers pain
Pain: unpleasant sensory & emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.

286
Q

identify two ways pain is specialised

A

-types of axons;
-responsiveness to stimuli

287
Q

A delta pain =

A

fast pain

288
Q

C fibre pain =

A

slow pain

289
Q

what two factors effect axon function

A

diameter and myelination

290
Q

identify the three main somatosensory pathways

A

Dorsal Column Medial-Lemniscus Pathway
Anterior Spinothalamic Tract
Lateral Spinothalamic Tract

291
Q

what does DCML pathway regulate

A

Fine Touch & Proprioception
* Two-point discrimination
* Vibration

292
Q

what are the components of DCML

A

1st order neurons
2nd order neruons
3rd order neurons

293
Q

what are 1st order neurons in DCML

A

axons ascend in dorsal columns and synapse at medulla

294
Q

what are 2nd order neurons in DCML

A

axons CROSS IN medulla and head up to thalamus

295
Q

what are 3rd order neurons in DCML

A

neurons in thalamus that project to somatosensory Cortex

296
Q

what does anterior spinothalamic tract regulate

A

crude touch and pressure sensation

297
Q

what does lateral spinothalamic tract regulate

A

pain, temperature sensations

298
Q

what are 1st order neurons in anterior spinothalamic tract

A

-Axons synapse in dorsal horn

299
Q

what are 2nd order neurons in anterior spinothalamic tract

A
  • Axons immediately CROSS IN SPINAL
    CORD & head to thalamus
300
Q

what are 3rd order neurons in anterior spinothalamic tract

A

Neurons in thalamus project to
Somatosensory cortex

301
Q

what are 1st order neurons in lateral spinothalamic tract

A
  • Aδ fibres (fast pain) + C fibres (slow
    dull pain)
  • Axons synapse in dorsal horn
302
Q

what are 2nd order neurons in lateral spinothalamic tract

A
  • Axons IMMEDIATELY CROSS IN SPINAL
    CORD & head to thalamus
303
Q

what are 3rd order neurons in lateral spinothalamic tract

A
  • Neurons in thalamus project to
    Somatosensory cortex
304
Q

what adds emotional context to lateral spinothalamic tract

A

cingulate gyrus

305
Q

what are the two physiological ways pain can be regulated

A

afferent regulation
descending regulation

306
Q

how does descending regulation work (pain)

A

-Periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) neurons play role in modulating pain
-Influences raphe nucleus in the medulla
-secrete endogenous opioids that bind to 2nd order neuron and relay the pain to higher centres

307
Q

how does afferent regulation work (pain)

A

Pain evoked by activity in nociceptors
can be reduced by simultaneous activity in mechanoreceptors

308
Q

what things do the autonomic NS regulate

A

Blood pressure
Heart and breathing rates
Body temperature
Digestion
Metabolism (thus affecting body weight)
The balance of water and electrolytes
The production of body fluids
Urination
Defecation
Sexual response

309
Q

identify the divisions of the autonomic NS

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

310
Q

how many neurons involved in autonomic response

A

2 neurons sytem
-pre ganglion (in CNS) and post ganglion (outside CNS) neuron

311
Q

contrast somatic and autonomic NS

A

-one neuron response vs two neuron chain
-voluntary vs involuntary
-originates in spinal column (CNS) vs originates in pre-ganglionic nuron (CNS)
-stimulatory vs stimulatory or inhibitory

312
Q

function of sympathetic NS and what does it supply

A

-Prepares body for physical activity/fight or flight
-Visceral organs, adrenal gland (medulla), vascular smooth muscle, sweat glands and arrector pili muscles in hair

313
Q

function of parasympathetic NS and what does it supply

A

-Rest and digest
-Organs of head, neck, trunk and external genitalia

314
Q

contrast neurotransmitters in Autonomic vs Somatic NS

A

-Somatic always involves Ach

-Sympathetic uses NE and epinephrine (only Ach for sweat gland)
-Parasympathetic uses Ach

315
Q

what do alpha receptors induce when undergoing sympathetic response

A

(1 or 2) smooth muscle contraction

316
Q

what do beta receptors induce when undergoing sympathetic response

A

(2 or 3) smooth muscle relaxation
(1) cardiac muscle contraction

317
Q

what do muscarinic receptors induce and detect when undergoing sympathetic response

A

detect Ach, produce sweat

318
Q

is the pre or post ganglionic fibre longer (sympathetic)

A

post (more nerves in PNS allow for widespread, generalized responses)

319
Q

where are pre ganglionic fibres found in sympathetic NS

A

T1-T12
L1-L2
which forms lateral horn

320
Q

are post ganglionic fibres myelinated

A

no (slow means more control,more flexible and energy saving)

321
Q

what are the types of post ganglionic fibres for sympathetic NS

A

paravertebral and pre vertebral

322
Q

what is the sympathetic chain

A

Comprised of paired, longitudinally arranged, paravertebral sympathetic ganglia linked together.

323
Q

what’s a splanchnic nerve

A

nerve on the post-ganglionic nerve that innervates visceral targets (contain visceral sensory fibres and autonomic fibres)

324
Q

what things can a pre ganglionic fibre do

A

-can synapse directly onto adrenal medulla (chromaffin cells)
-can synapse on a paravertebral ganglia within the sympathetic chain
-can synapse on a prevertebral ganglia past the trunk

325
Q

is the pre or post ganglionic fibre longer (parasympathetic)

A

pre (more complex and fine tuned functions need more time in CNS)

326
Q

contrast where terminal ganglia lie in sympathetic vs parasympathetic NS

A

terminal ganglia lie closer to target cell in parasympathetic NS compared to further away from target cell in sympathetic NS

327
Q

what is an autonomic plexus

A

collection of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres

328
Q

define transmission

A

Transmission carries the signal from site of transduction to the cortex through a pathway involving multiple neurons

329
Q

what sense is not relayed to the thalamus

A

olfaction (smell)

330
Q

what’s labelled line principle

A

sensory information from different modalities (like taste, smell, and touch) is sent to the brain through distinct, dedicated pathways called “labeled lines.”

331
Q

Outline steps in visual pathway

A
  1. Light waves pass through the cornea, enter pupil(iris), lens, retina
  2. rods and cones are stimulated
    3.impulses pass via optic nerve
    4.impulses reach optic chiasm
    5.impulses reach optic tract
    6.relay in lateral geniculate body (thalamus)
    7.projection to super colliculus
    8.optic radiation
    9.fibres terminate in VA 17 (formation of image)
    10.fibres travel to VA 18 for interpretation in detail
    “Curious Explorers Like Really Nice Chisels To Gauge Super Rocks For image interpretation”
332
Q

describe transduction in eye

A

Light (electromagnetic energy) activates photoreceptors located within the retina of the eye

333
Q

identify the two types of photoreceptors

A

rods and cones

334
Q

features of rods

A

are monochromatic (no colour information) and have low visual acuity, but excel at detecting dim lights and peripheral vision

335
Q

features of cones

A

mediate colour vision and have high visual acuity in bright light

336
Q

centre of retina =

A

macula (fovea is the pit in macula)

337
Q

periphery of retina has ____

A

more rods than cones

338
Q

optic disc aka

A

blind spot (no photoreceptors)

339
Q

what does the image in the retina look like

A

Image on the retina is inverted and reversed

340
Q

after retina the info goes to

A

optic nerve

341
Q

optic nerves cross at

A

optic chiasm

342
Q

what’s the optic tract

A

Axons extending from the optic chiasm

343
Q

where does the optic tract terminate

A

thalamus and superior colliculus

344
Q

where in the thalamus does the optic tract terminate

A

lateral geniculate nucleus

345
Q

what splits the occipital lobe

A

calcarine sulcus

346
Q

identify two streams of visual processing

A

what (naming) and where (motion) stream

347
Q

function of external ear

A

collection of sound

348
Q

function of middle ear

A

impedance matching:match relatively low-impedance airborne sounds to the higher-impedance fluid of the inner ear

348
Q

Outline auditory pathway

A

-sound waves enter ear
-vibration of tympanic membrane
-vibration travel to ossicle in mid ear
-transmission to ova window of cochlea
-movement of fluid in cochlea
-stimulation of hair cells along basilar membrane
-hair cells convert mechanical vibrations into neural signals
-neural signals travel along auditory nerve
-neural signals reach brainstem
-signals extend to thalamus
-signals extend to auditory cortex
-processing occurs

“Sound Vibrations Travel Over Oceans, Making Silly Hairy Noodles Not So Tall After Processing”

349
Q

function of inner ear

A

analysis and transduction of of signals

350
Q

Outline pathway for balance

A

-hair cells
-nerve fibres
-vestibular ganglion cells
-vestibular nuclei (4)
-cerebellum/eye movement/muscle tone/head position/thalamus/emesis centres/

“Happy Nervous Vessels Visit Calm Centers”

351
Q

brocas aphasia

A

“telegraphic speech” or you know what to say but you can’t.

352
Q

wernickes aphasia

A

fluent speech but the words lack meaning and the patient is not aware of it.
-Inability to comprehend spoken words.

353
Q

outline pathway for speech production (including understanding)

A

-Hearing (Inner ear, CN VIII etc)
-Area 41 (PAC of temporal lobe)
-Wernickes area (sensory matching)
-Hear and comprehend words

-Wernickes area (word storage)
-Brocas area (motor program)
-Motor cortex (motor execution)
-Cranial nerves
-speech

“I Always Wonder How We Begin Making Clear Speech”

354
Q

outline olfactory pathway

A

-odourant Molecule
-olfactory Receptor
-Olfactory area
-olfactory Bulb
-olfactory Tract
-primary olfactory Area

THEN
Other areas: either to amygdala/hippocampus or orbitofrontal cortex

“MROBTAO - My Red Orange Balloon Takes Afloat Overhead”

355
Q

outline process of gustation

A

-particles dissolved in salvia and to be tasted
-detected by taste receptors
-tranmission to thalamus VPM(ventral posteromedial nucleus)
-gustatory cortex

“PTTG - Particles To Taste Great”

356
Q

identify different tastes

A

sweet
salty
sour
umami
bitter

357
Q

flavour =

A

taste + smell+ texture+ temperature+ appearance

358
Q

what makes up the neocortex

A

conical ribbon, longitudinal fissure and subcortical ganglia

359
Q

semantic vs episodic memory

A

s=facts and general knowledge, factual
e=life events/experiences, non factual

360
Q

function of cerebrocerebellum

A

planning and execution of skilled voluntary movements

361
Q

name the sequence of events in transmission of nervous response

A

sensory receptor
sensory neuron
dorsal root ganglion
dorsal root
dorsal horn
dorsal column
interneuron
ventral column
ventral horn
ventral root
motor neuron
effector

362
Q

outline components of corticospinal pathway

A

cell body
corona radiata
internal capsule
midbrain
pons
medulla
pyramidal decussation
spinal chord
innervated pathway

363
Q

visceral vs somatic reflex

A

visceral=involves smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands eg.decrease in HR in response to carotid sinus
somatic = involves skeletal muscle contraction eg patellar reflex

364
Q

describe two layers of retina

A

vertical-contains photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells
horizontal-contains interneurons, horizontal cells and amacrine cells

365
Q

ageusia

A

Ageusia is the loss of taste functions of the tongue

366
Q

difference between spinothalamic and corticospinal tract

A

The spinothalamic tract is a somatosensory tract and the corticospinal tract is a motor tract

367
Q

why is there no ventral root ganglion

A

because of the inexistence of the peripheral synapse

Foundations of Medicine (18 decks)

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