Week 1 Science and Scholarships Flashcards
1
Q
What constitutes the integumentary system?
A
skin and accessory organs
2
Q
Outline function of the integumentary system
A
-protection from environmental hazards
-regulate temperature
3
Q
What constitutes musculoskeletal system?
A
bones, muscles, joints
4
Q
Outline function of muscular system
A
Locomotion
Support
Heat generation
5
Q
Outline function of skeletal system
A
Support
protection of soft tissues
mineral formation
blood formation
6
Q
What constitutes the nervous system
A
brain and spinal chord
7
Q
Outline function of nervous system
A
Directing immediate responses to stimuli
Regulating other organs and body systems to carry out homeostasis
integrating stimuli and control centres
8
Q
What constitutes the endocrine system
A
endocrine glands
9
Q
Outline functions of endocrine system
A
Directing longe term changes (via molecules and hormones) to regulate activities of other body systems and organs
10
Q
What constitutes the reproductive system
A
male and female sex organs + cells and tissues
11
Q
Outline function of reproductive system
A
production of sex cells and hormones
support embryonic development from conception to childbirth
12
Q
What constitutes the cardiovascular system
A
blood vessels and the heart
13
Q
Outline the function of the cardiovascular system
A
transport of nutrients , gases and water
14
Q
What constitutes the lymphatic system
A
lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs
15
Q
outline function of lymphatic system
A
governs immunity and defence
regulates fluid levels in the body
16
Q
What constitutes the respiratory system
A
airways and lungs
17
Q
what is the function of the respiratory system
A
delivery of air to sites for gas exchange to occur between the air and circulating blood
18
Q
what constitutes the urinary system
A
the urinary bladder,urethra and ureter
19
Q
what are atoms
A
smallest stable unit of matter
20
Q
what makes up atoms
A
protons(+) neutrons(no charge) and electrons(-)
21
Q
atoms have ___ charge
A
no charge
22
Q
what are atoms that lose or gain an electron called
A
ions
23
Q
cations are
A
atoms that lose an electron(s) to gain a net positive charge
+
24
Q
anions are
A
25
Define an element
pure substance that consist only of atoms of the same type (i.e with the same atomic number)
26
List the principal elements of the human body + one function
Carbon-all organic compounds
Hydrogen-water + body components
Nitrogen-proteins, nucleic acids
Oxygen-water + respiration
Phosphorus-bones, teeth
Calcium-bones, nerve impulse, muscle contraction
27
What are molecules and compounds
substances consisting of atoms of one or more elements joined together by a chemical bond
28
Difference between compound and molecules
29
List the four classes of biomacromolecules
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
carbohydrates
30
What are organic compounds made of
C,H and usually O
31
How many bonds can Carbon form
up to 4 bonds with atoms
32
Whats the importance of amino group
acts as a base by accepting H+ based on pH
can form bonds with other molecules
33
What is the importance of carbonyl group
acts as an acid releasing H+ to become COOH
34
What is the importance of hydroxyl group
may link molecules through dehydration synthesis
35
what is the importance of phosphate group
may link other molecules to form larger molecules
may store energy
36
What are carbohydrates made up of
CHO
1:2:1 ratio
37
What is the function of carbohydrate
energy source+storage
38
what are examples of carbohydrates
sugars and starches
39
what is a monosaccharides
simplest sugars containing one carbon ring
eg glucose, fructose
40
what is a disaccharide
contain two carbon rings
41
example of disaccharide
sucrose lactose
42
what are polysaccharides
complex sugars containing hundreds of carbon rings
43
what are examples of polysaccharides
glycogen and starch
44
what are lipids
organic molecules that can not readily dissolve in water
CHO
1:2<1
doesn't attract water
45
examples of lipids
fats, oils and waxes
46
function of lipids
energy
47
examples of monosaccharides
glucose and fructose-energy source
galactose
48
examples of disaccharides
sucrose, lactose and maltose-energy source
49
examples of polysaccharides
glycogen-energy storage
cellulose
amylose
amylopectin
starch
50
list some lipids
fatty acids
glycerides
eicosanoids
steroids
phospholipids
51
function of fatty acids
energy sources
52
function of glycerides
energy sources, energy storage , insulation and physical protection
53
function of eicosanoids
chemical messengers coordinating local cellular activities
54
function of steroids
structural components of cell membranes, hormones
55
function of phospholipids
structural component of cells membranes
56
what elements do proteins contain
CHON (s)
57
What are functions of proteins
structural support
movement
transport
enzyme / catalyst
coordination and control
immune defence
58
what is the primary structure
sequence of amino acids
59
what is secondary structure
bonds formed between atoms at different parts of the polypeptide chain
60
what is a tertiary structure
coiling and folding to give protein a final 3d shape
61
what is a quaternary structure
interactions between multiple polypeptides chains
62
what are nucleic acids made up of
contains CHONP
phosphate group
pentose sugar
nitrogenous base (ACGT*U*)
63
Function of of nucleic acids
to store and transfer information
64
identify two types of nucleic acids
dna and rna
65
Function of DNA
growth development and reproduction
66
What does DNA contain
genetic instructions
67
what bonds form between nitrogenous bases in the double helix
Hydrogen bonds
68
identify three types of RNA
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
69
function of mRNA
encode amino acid sequences during translation
70
function of tRNA
carry amino acids during translation
71
function of rRNA
constitute component of ribosomes
72
define chemical bond
an attraction that links atoms and ions together
73
what is an intramolecular bond
keep a molecule intact
forms stronger bonds
74
what is an intermolecular bonds
hold multiple molecules together
weak bonds
75
what are valence electrons
electrons in the outermost shell
76
what are covalent bonds
atoms share electrons to fill out their outer electron shell and enable stability of the atoms
77
how are covalent bonds classified
single, double and triple depending on the number of pairs of electrons shared
polar and non polar
78
what are polar covalent bonds
when electrons are unequally distributed in an atom this creates a partial polar region
79
what are non polar covalent bonds
electrons are equally shared between atoms and there is no net electrical charge difference across the molecule
80
what are ionic bonds
involves the transfer of valence electrons between two oppositely charged ions
81
what are metallic bonds
valence electrons are donated to a sea of freely moving electrons
82
properties of metals
-very strong
-malleable and ductile '
-good conductors of electricity and heat
83
identify the two types of van der Waals bonds
London dispersion forces
Dipole-dipole bonds
84
what are London dispersion bonds
occurs between non polar molecules and creates a momentary dipole
85
what are dipole dipole bonds
occurs between polar molecules (have a permanent dipole)
86
What are H bonds
attractive (strong) bond between a H atom covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom (NOF)
87
identify properties of water
high BP
high surface tension
freezes/floats
88
define metabolism
sum total of all the chemical reactions in the body
89
identify the three types of basic chemical reactions
anabolic
catabolic
exchange
90
catabolic reactions are
energy releasing and exergonic as they break down larger molecules into smaller ones
91
anabolic reactions are
energy requiring and endergonic reactions that build up smaller molecules into larger ones
92
what is an exchange reaction
consist of both synthesis and decomposition reaction
93
what are reversible reactions
products can be converted back to the original reactants
94
identify the three main components of the cell
nucleus cytoplasm and plasma cell membrane
95
what is in the nucleus
nucleolus, nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, chromosomes and chromatin (houses genetic material)
96
functor of the nucleus
control centre of the cell (the mastermind)
regulates the expression of genes
produces ribosomal subunits (nucleolus)
97
Describe structure of nuclear envelope
double membrane
nuclear pores
continuous with rough ER
98
Describe structure of the nucleolus
spherical dark body
in nucleus
amembraneous
99
Function of nucleolus
site of RNA synthesis and abundant in cells that actively synthesise proetins
100
Whats a nucleosome
histone and DNA wrapped/compacted in a cell
101
Importance of nucleosome
regulates gene expression
packs the DNA inside the cell
102
What is chromatin
colour
compacted DNA wrapped around protein which pack into chromosomes
103
Identify two types of chromatin
euchromatin and heterochromatin
104
what is euchromatin
active cell that is disposed and lightly stained
105
what is heterochromatin
inactive cell that is highly condensed and intensely stained
106
what is pleomorphism
change in nucleus size
107
what is the cytoplasm
space in cell from nucleus to plasma cell membrane
108
function of ribosome
site of protein synthesis
109
what is the cytosol
all the fluid in a cell that surrounds organelles
75-90% water and mixture of compounds
110
Rough ER ribosome vs freely floating ribosome
ribsomes on rough Er produce proteins for extracellular use whereas freely floating ribsomes produce proteins for use inside the cell
111
structure of ribosome
made in ribosome, 2 subunits, high RNA content,
attaches to rough ER or freely float in cytosol
112
Structure and function of rough ER
continue with nuclear envelope
studded with ribsomes
folds and transports, modifies protein
113
Structure and function of smooth ER
lacks ribosomes
unique enzymes
detoxification and synthesis of fatty acids and steroids
114
Structure of Golgi complex
sorts and packages proteins exiting the rER
2 surfaces (entry and exit)
3-20 cisternae
115
which way do the surfaces face in the Golgi complex
entry faces RER (cis cisternae)
exit faces PCM (trans cisternae)
116
what are vesicles/vacuoles
membrane bound molecules
vehicle/carriers
117
function of vesicles
carry water proteins and wastes
118
what is the structure of lysosome
membrane enclosed vesicles that contains 50 enzymes
ph5
119
function of lysosomes
break down molecules
digestion
autophagy
recycling cellular materials
120
what's autophagy
self consumption
121
what is the function of mitochondria
ATP (energy production)
aerobic cellular respiration
122
structure of mitochondria
double membraned
inner folds-cristae
inner space -matrix
123
function of cytoskeleton
skeleton/framework of cell
strength shape and framework
124
structure of cytoskeleton
labile
made of filamentous proteins that allows movement
125
structure of the centrosome
mitotic spindle
apparatus formed from microtubules
126
function of centrosome
essential to cell division
127
structure and function microvilli
numerous short extensions
increase surface area
128
structure and function of cillia
hair like projections
moves fluid along the cell (muco escalator)
129
structure and function of flagella
longer than cilia
aids movement of whole cell
130
function of plasma cell membrane
protects the cell
communication
regulates inputs and outputs
131
structure of phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic heads and fatty acid tails
132
what does superior mean
towards the head
133
Outline anatomical position
Stand upright
Face forward at the observer
The mouth is closed and facial expression is neutral
Arms are by the side with palms of the hands facing forwards
Feet are flat on the floor and are close together with toes pointing forwards
134
what does inferior mean
towards the toes
135
what does anterior mean
towards the front
136
what does ventral mean
anterior surface
137
what does palmar mean
anterior surface of the hand
138
what does plantar mean
base surface of the foot
139
what does posterior mean
towards the back
140
what does dorsal mean
posterior surface
141
what does rostral mean
towards the superior-anterior tip
142
what does caudal mean
towards the inferior-posterior tip (tail)
143
what does media mean
nearer to midline
144
what does lateral mean
farther from the midline
145
what does ipsilateral mean
one the same side of the body as another structure
146
what does contralateral mean
on opposite side of body as another structure
147
what is the axial body (skeleton)
centre body line (mass)
148
what is the appendicular body (skeleton)
limbs off the trunk
149
what does proximal mean
nearer to the axial body attachment
150
what does distal mean
further from axial body attachment
151
what's a plane vs section
plane is the flat surface that passes through body whereas section is the surface that results after cut along plane
152
whats the sagittal plane
vertical plane that divides body into L R
153
what's the mid sagittal plane
equal halves
154
what's the para sagittal plane
unequal halves
155
what's the transverse plane
horizontal plane divided body into upper and lower portions
156
what's the coronal (frontal) plane
vertical plane that divides body into anterior and posterior portions
157
what is pathology
study of diseases
158
identify the main types of medical imaging
xray
CT
ultrasound
MRI
nuclear medicine
interventional radiology
159
when are x rays used
dense structures
structures of different density are adjacent to each other
assessing tube placement eg catheters
160
advantages of x rays
relatively cheap
quick, accessible and can be mobile
161
disadvantages of x ray
static image
limited detail
risk of radiation for pregnant women and children
162
how do x rays work
ionising radiation
absorption of x rays varies depending on the density of tissue
163
how do CT scans work
ionising radiation
takes x rays from various angles which is reconstructed into multi-slice imaging
IV contrast can be used to provide greater detail
164
when are CT scans used
diagnosis
monitoring and staging in oncology
assess vessels and vascularity
preoperative planning
165
advantages of CT scan
relatively accessible
quick
detail for all structures in FOV
166
disadvantages of CT scan
radiation dose
patient must stay relatively still on CT table
patient needs to be stable enough for transportation onto CT table
167
how does ultrasound work
sound waves used to create a picture, probe transmits the wave and then records the echo received back.
168
when is ultrasound used
assessing soft tissues
dynamic assessment
169
advantages of ultrasound
accessible
safe
cheaper than CT and MRI
dynamic, not just static
170
disadvantages of ultrasound
limited in use of sound waves (transmission and depth)
scans usually require some cooperation from pt
171
how does MRI work
1.protons align in magnetic field
2.radio waves briefly transmitted to disrupt alignment of protons
3.protons realign but at different rates
4. picture generated
172
when is MRI used
high detail of soft tissue (superior to CT)
doesn't need IV contrast for vascular structures
fMRI offers scope for functionality
173
advantages of MRI
gold standard
doesn't use ionising radiation
174
disadvantages of MRI
claustrophobia
costly
timely
large machines
175
what is nuclear medicine
uses radioactive isotopes to access function, diagnosis and treatment eg PET
176
risks of nuclear medicine
limited access
risk of ionising radiation
177
what's the most rapidly growing area of radiology
interventional radiology
178
define homeostasis
anyself-regulatingprocessbywhichbiological systems tend to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival
179
what do nerve cells release
neurotransmitters
180
what do endocrine cells release
hormones
181
what does sweating do
heat loss via evaporative cooling t/f decrease body temp
182
what happens when hair follicles relax
increased air flow next to the skin t/f increased heat loss by convection t/f decrease body temp
183
what does vasodilation do
increased diameter of arterioles t/f heat loss by convection and conduction t/f decrease body temp
184
what does the body do to increase body temp
reduce sweating
piloerection
constrict skin arterioles
shivering
metabolic
185
outline negative feedback loop
1.stimulus produces change in variable
2.change detected by receptor
3.input information sent along afferent pathway
4.information sent along efferent pathway
5.effector feeds back to reduce the magnitude of the original stimulus
6.returns variable to homeostasis
186
what is a positive feedback loop
amplifies an initial change
allows a large response to develop from a small initial signal
187
what is an example of positive feedback loop
blood clotting and Ferguson reflex
188
how does BP regulation work
-decrease/ increase in BP
-stretch of baroreceptor decreases/increases
-information sent along afferent pathway to brain
-heart beats harder and faster/ softer and slower
-BP returns to normal
189
how does blood glucose regulation work
-increase/decrease plasma glucose concentration
-change detected in beta/alpha cells
-insulin/glucagon released
-insulin/glucagon acts on target tissues
-homeostasis returned
190
how does blood calcium regulation
-decrease/increase in calcium concentration
-decrease/increase detected by chemoreceptors in PT gland
-PTH released/not released by PT gland
-PTH acts on target tissues
-increased Ca reabsorption by bone/kidney/gut
191
consequences of diabetes mellitus
CVD
nephropathy
retinopathy
impaired circulation and decreased wound healing
periodontal disease
192
consequences of rickets
-loss of density due to lack of calcium, vitamin D3
-osteomalacia
-poor development of teeth
193
what is ICF
inside the cell
-cellular components (organelles are suspended in fluid)
194
what is ECF
compartments-outside the cell
ISF and IVF
195
what is ISF
between cells and vessels
196
what is IVF
plasma major component
197
what is a solution
even dispersions of solutes with solvent molecules
198
what are colloids
larger molecules of colloidal dimensions
199
what are suspensions
dispersion of solutes with solvent molecules
200
define capillary hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted by volume of blood against the blood vessels
201
define interstitial pressure
pressure exerted by interstitial fluid volume + tissue compliance
202
what is osmosis
net movement of fluid through a selectively permeable (plasma) membrane down a concentration gradient
203
what does ADH do
conserves water and produces vasoconstriction
204
acid + base -->
water and salt
205
H+ concentration influence pH
increased H+ = decreased pH
decreased H+ + increased pH
206
what's acidosis
decreased excitability and confusion
207
whats alkalosis
increased PNS/CNS activities
numbness
tingling
muscle spasm
convulsions
208
phosphate buffer system reaction
H2PO4- --> HPO42- + H+
209
