Week 1 Science and Scholarships Flashcards
What constitutes the integumentary system?
skin and accessory organs
Outline function of the integumentary system
-protection from environmental hazards
-regulate temperature
What constitutes musculoskeletal system?
bones, muscles, joints
Outline function of muscular system
Locomotion
Support
Heat generation
Outline function of skeletal system
Support
protection of soft tissues
mineral formation
blood formation
What constitutes the nervous system
brain and spinal chord
Outline function of nervous system
Directing immediate responses to stimuli
Regulating other organs and body systems to carry out homeostasis
integrating stimuli and control centres
What constitutes the endocrine system
endocrine glands
Outline functions of endocrine system
Directing longe term changes (via molecules and hormones) to regulate activities of other body systems and organs
What constitutes the reproductive system
male and female sex organs + cells and tissues
Outline function of reproductive system
production of sex cells and hormones
support embryonic development from conception to childbirth
What constitutes the cardiovascular system
blood vessels and the heart
Outline the function of the cardiovascular system
transport of nutrients , gases and water
What constitutes the lymphatic system
lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs
outline function of lymphatic system
governs immunity and defence
regulates fluid levels in the body
What constitutes the respiratory system
airways and lungs
what is the function of the respiratory system
delivery of air to sites for gas exchange to occur between the air and circulating blood
what constitutes the urinary system
the urinary bladder,urethra and ureter
what are atoms
smallest stable unit of matter
what makes up atoms
protons(+) neutrons(no charge) and electrons(-)
atoms have ___ charge
no charge
what are atoms that lose or gain an electron called
ions
cations are
atoms that lose an electron(s) to gain a net positive charge
+
anions are
Define an element
pure substance that consist only of atoms of the same type (i.e with the same atomic number)
List the principal elements of the human body + one function
Carbon-all organic compounds
Hydrogen-water + body components
Nitrogen-proteins, nucleic acids
Oxygen-water + respiration
Phosphorus-bones, teeth
Calcium-bones, nerve impulse, muscle contraction
What are molecules and compounds
substances consisting of atoms of one or more elements joined together by a chemical bond
Difference between compound and molecules
List the four classes of biomacromolecules
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
carbohydrates
What are organic compounds made of
C,H and usually O
How many bonds can Carbon form
up to 4 bonds with atoms
Whats the importance of amino group
acts as a base by accepting H+ based on pH
can form bonds with other molecules
What is the importance of carbonyl group
acts as an acid releasing H+ to become COOH
What is the importance of hydroxyl group
may link molecules through dehydration synthesis
what is the importance of phosphate group
may link other molecules to form larger molecules
may store energy
What are carbohydrates made up of
CHO
1:2:1 ratio
What is the function of carbohydrate
energy source+storage
what are examples of carbohydrates
sugars and starches
what is a monosaccharides
simplest sugars containing one carbon ring
eg glucose, fructose
what is a disaccharide
contain two carbon rings
example of disaccharide
sucrose lactose
what are polysaccharides
complex sugars containing hundreds of carbon rings
what are examples of polysaccharides
glycogen and starch
what are lipids
organic molecules that can not readily dissolve in water
CHO
1:2<1
doesn’t attract water
examples of lipids
fats, oils and waxes
function of lipids
energy
examples of monosaccharides
glucose and fructose-energy source
galactose
examples of disaccharides
sucrose, lactose and maltose-energy source
examples of polysaccharides
glycogen-energy storage
cellulose
amylose
amylopectin
starch
list some lipids
fatty acids
glycerides
eicosanoids
steroids
phospholipids
function of fatty acids
energy sources
function of glycerides
energy sources, energy storage , insulation and physical protection
function of eicosanoids
chemical messengers coordinating local cellular activities
function of steroids
structural components of cell membranes, hormones
function of phospholipids
structural component of cells membranes
what elements do proteins contain
CHON (s)
What are functions of proteins
structural support
movement
transport
enzyme / catalyst
coordination and control
immune defence
what is the primary structure
sequence of amino acids
what is secondary structure
bonds formed between atoms at different parts of the polypeptide chain
what is a tertiary structure
coiling and folding to give protein a final 3d shape
what is a quaternary structure
interactions between multiple polypeptides chains
what are nucleic acids made up of
contains CHONP
phosphate group
pentose sugar
nitrogenous base (ACGTU)
Function of of nucleic acids
to store and transfer information
identify two types of nucleic acids
dna and rna
Function of DNA
growth development and reproduction
What does DNA contain
genetic instructions
what bonds form between nitrogenous bases in the double helix
Hydrogen bonds
identify three types of RNA
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
function of mRNA
encode amino acid sequences during translation
function of tRNA
carry amino acids during translation
function of rRNA
constitute component of ribosomes
define chemical bond
an attraction that links atoms and ions together
what is an intramolecular bond
keep a molecule intact
forms stronger bonds
what is an intermolecular bonds
hold multiple molecules together
weak bonds
what are valence electrons
electrons in the outermost shell
what are covalent bonds
atoms share electrons to fill out their outer electron shell and enable stability of the atoms
how are covalent bonds classified
single, double and triple depending on the number of pairs of electrons shared
polar and non polar
what are polar covalent bonds
when electrons are unequally distributed in an atom this creates a partial polar region
what are non polar covalent bonds
electrons are equally shared between atoms and there is no net electrical charge difference across the molecule
what are ionic bonds
involves the transfer of valence electrons between two oppositely charged ions
what are metallic bonds
valence electrons are donated to a sea of freely moving electrons
properties of metals
-very strong
-malleable and ductile ‘
-good conductors of electricity and heat
identify the two types of van der Waals bonds
London dispersion forces
Dipole-dipole bonds
what are London dispersion bonds
occurs between non polar molecules and creates a momentary dipole
what are dipole dipole bonds
occurs between polar molecules (have a permanent dipole)
What are H bonds
attractive (strong) bond between a H atom covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom (NOF)
identify properties of water
high BP
high surface tension
freezes/floats
define metabolism
sum total of all the chemical reactions in the body
identify the three types of basic chemical reactions
anabolic
catabolic
exchange
catabolic reactions are
energy releasing and exergonic as they break down larger molecules into smaller ones
anabolic reactions are
energy requiring and endergonic reactions that build up smaller molecules into larger ones
what is an exchange reaction
consist of both synthesis and decomposition reaction
what are reversible reactions
products can be converted back to the original reactants
identify the three main components of the cell
nucleus cytoplasm and plasma cell membrane
what is in the nucleus
nucleolus, nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, chromosomes and chromatin (houses genetic material)
functor of the nucleus
control centre of the cell (the mastermind)
regulates the expression of genes
produces ribosomal subunits (nucleolus)
Describe structure of nuclear envelope
double membrane
nuclear pores
continuous with rough ER
Describe structure of the nucleolus
spherical dark body
in nucleus
amembraneous
Function of nucleolus
site of RNA synthesis and abundant in cells that actively synthesise proetins
Whats a nucleosome
histone and DNA wrapped/compacted in a cell
Importance of nucleosome
regulates gene expression
packs the DNA inside the cell
What is chromatin
colour
compacted DNA wrapped around protein which pack into chromosomes
Identify two types of chromatin
euchromatin and heterochromatin
what is euchromatin
active cell that is disposed and lightly stained
what is heterochromatin
inactive cell that is highly condensed and intensely stained
what is pleomorphism
change in nucleus size
what is the cytoplasm
space in cell from nucleus to plasma cell membrane
function of ribosome
site of protein synthesis
what is the cytosol
all the fluid in a cell that surrounds organelles
75-90% water and mixture of compounds
Rough ER ribosome vs freely floating ribosome
ribsomes on rough Er produce proteins for extracellular use whereas freely floating ribsomes produce proteins for use inside the cell
structure of ribosome
made in ribosome, 2 subunits, high RNA content,
attaches to rough ER or freely float in cytosol
Structure and function of rough ER
continue with nuclear envelope
studded with ribsomes
folds and transports, modifies protein
Structure and function of smooth ER
lacks ribosomes
unique enzymes
detoxification and synthesis of fatty acids and steroids
Structure of Golgi complex
sorts and packages proteins exiting the rER
2 surfaces (entry and exit)
3-20 cisternae
which way do the surfaces face in the Golgi complex
entry faces RER (cis cisternae)
exit faces PCM (trans cisternae)
what are vesicles/vacuoles
membrane bound molecules
vehicle/carriers
function of vesicles
carry water proteins and wastes
what is the structure of lysosome
membrane enclosed vesicles that contains 50 enzymes
ph5
function of lysosomes
break down molecules
digestion
autophagy
recycling cellular materials
what’s autophagy
self consumption
what is the function of mitochondria
ATP (energy production)
aerobic cellular respiration
structure of mitochondria
double membraned
inner folds-cristae
inner space -matrix
function of cytoskeleton
skeleton/framework of cell
strength shape and framework
structure of cytoskeleton
labile
made of filamentous proteins that allows movement
structure of the centrosome
mitotic spindle
apparatus formed from microtubules
function of centrosome
essential to cell division
structure and function microvilli
numerous short extensions
increase surface area
structure and function of cillia
hair like projections
moves fluid along the cell (muco escalator)
structure and function of flagella
longer than cilia
aids movement of whole cell
function of plasma cell membrane
protects the cell
communication
regulates inputs and outputs
structure of phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic heads and fatty acid tails
what does superior mean
towards the head
Outline anatomical position
Stand upright
Face forward at the observer
The mouth is closed and facial expression is neutral
Arms are by the side with palms of the hands facing forwards
Feet are flat on the floor and are close together with toes pointing forwards
what does inferior mean
towards the toes
what does anterior mean
towards the front
what does ventral mean
anterior surface
what does palmar mean
anterior surface of the hand
what does plantar mean
base surface of the foot
what does posterior mean
towards the back
what does dorsal mean
posterior surface
what does rostral mean
towards the superior-anterior tip
what does caudal mean
towards the inferior-posterior tip (tail)
what does media mean
nearer to midline
what does lateral mean
farther from the midline
what does ipsilateral mean
one the same side of the body as another structure
what does contralateral mean
on opposite side of body as another structure
what is the axial body (skeleton)
centre body line (mass)
what is the appendicular body (skeleton)
limbs off the trunk
what does proximal mean
nearer to the axial body attachment
what does distal mean
further from axial body attachment
what’s a plane vs section
plane is the flat surface that passes through body whereas section is the surface that results after cut along plane
whats the sagittal plane
vertical plane that divides body into L R
what’s the mid sagittal plane
equal halves
what’s the para sagittal plane
unequal halves
what’s the transverse plane
horizontal plane divided body into upper and lower portions
what’s the coronal (frontal) plane
vertical plane that divides body into anterior and posterior portions
what is pathology
study of diseases
identify the main types of medical imaging
xray
CT
ultrasound
MRI
nuclear medicine
interventional radiology
when are x rays used
dense structures
structures of different density are adjacent to each other
assessing tube placement eg catheters
advantages of x rays
relatively cheap
quick, accessible and can be mobile
disadvantages of x ray
static image
limited detail
risk of radiation for pregnant women and children
how do x rays work
ionising radiation
absorption of x rays varies depending on the density of tissue
how do CT scans work
ionising radiation
takes x rays from various angles which is reconstructed into multi-slice imaging
IV contrast can be used to provide greater detail
when are CT scans used
diagnosis
monitoring and staging in oncology
assess vessels and vascularity
preoperative planning
advantages of CT scan
relatively accessible
quick
detail for all structures in FOV
disadvantages of CT scan
radiation dose
patient must stay relatively still on CT table
patient needs to be stable enough for transportation onto CT table
how does ultrasound work
sound waves used to create a picture, probe transmits the wave and then records the echo received back.
when is ultrasound used
assessing soft tissues
dynamic assessment
advantages of ultrasound
accessible
safe
cheaper than CT and MRI
dynamic, not just static
disadvantages of ultrasound
limited in use of sound waves (transmission and depth)
scans usually require some cooperation from pt
how does MRI work
1.protons align in magnetic field
2.radio waves briefly transmitted to disrupt alignment of protons
3.protons realign but at different rates
4. picture generated
when is MRI used
high detail of soft tissue (superior to CT)
doesn’t need IV contrast for vascular structures
fMRI offers scope for functionality
advantages of MRI
gold standard
doesn’t use ionising radiation
disadvantages of MRI
claustrophobia
costly
timely
large machines
what is nuclear medicine
uses radioactive isotopes to access function, diagnosis and treatment eg PET
risks of nuclear medicine
limited access
risk of ionising radiation
what’s the most rapidly growing area of radiology
interventional radiology
define homeostasis
anyself-regulatingprocessbywhichbiological systems tend to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival
what do nerve cells release
neurotransmitters
what do endocrine cells release
hormones
what does sweating do
heat loss via evaporative cooling t/f decrease body temp
what happens when hair follicles relax
increased air flow next to the skin t/f increased heat loss by convection t/f decrease body temp
what does vasodilation do
increased diameter of arterioles t/f heat loss by convection and conduction t/f decrease body temp
what does the body do to increase body temp
reduce sweating
piloerection
constrict skin arterioles
shivering
metabolic
outline negative feedback loop
1.stimulus produces change in variable
2.change detected by receptor
3.input information sent along afferent pathway
4.information sent along efferent pathway
5.effector feeds back to reduce the magnitude of the original stimulus
6.returns variable to homeostasis
what is a positive feedback loop
amplifies an initial change
allows a large response to develop from a small initial signal
what is an example of positive feedback loop
blood clotting and Ferguson reflex
how does BP regulation work
-decrease/ increase in BP
-stretch of baroreceptor decreases/increases
-information sent along afferent pathway to brain
-heart beats harder and faster/ softer and slower
-BP returns to normal
how does blood glucose regulation work
-increase/decrease plasma glucose concentration
-change detected in beta/alpha cells
-insulin/glucagon released
-insulin/glucagon acts on target tissues
-homeostasis returned
how does blood calcium regulation
-decrease/increase in calcium concentration
-decrease/increase detected by chemoreceptors in PT gland
-PTH released/not released by PT gland
-PTH acts on target tissues
-increased Ca reabsorption by bone/kidney/gut
consequences of diabetes mellitus
CVD
nephropathy
retinopathy
impaired circulation and decreased wound healing
periodontal disease
consequences of rickets
-loss of density due to lack of calcium, vitamin D3
-osteomalacia
-poor development of teeth
what is ICF
inside the cell
-cellular components (organelles are suspended in fluid)
what is ECF
compartments-outside the cell
ISF and IVF
what is ISF
between cells and vessels
what is IVF
plasma major component
what is a solution
even dispersions of solutes with solvent molecules
what are colloids
larger molecules of colloidal dimensions
what are suspensions
dispersion of solutes with solvent molecules
define capillary hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted by volume of blood against the blood vessels
define interstitial pressure
pressure exerted by interstitial fluid volume + tissue compliance
what is osmosis
net movement of fluid through a selectively permeable (plasma) membrane down a concentration gradient
what does ADH do
conserves water and produces vasoconstriction
acid + base –>
water and salt
H+ concentration influence pH
increased H+ = decreased pH
decreased H+ + increased pH
what’s acidosis
decreased excitability and confusion
whats alkalosis
increased PNS/CNS activities
numbness
tingling
muscle spasm
convulsions
phosphate buffer system reaction
H2PO4- –> HPO42- + H+
