Week 24: Relationships and Self-Identity Flashcards
What is the central psychological question of selfhood?
How does a person apprehend and understand who he or she is?
List the three central metaphors for the self.
- Social actor
- Motivated agent
- Autobiographical author
At what age does the sense of self as a social actor begin to emerge?
Around the age of 18 months
What is reflexivity in human selfhood?
The process by which the ‘I’ encounters and makes sense of itself (the ‘Me’)
Define narrative identity.
The internalized story of the self that integrates past, present, and future experiences.
True or False: The self as a motivated agent acts solely based on external influences.
False
What developmental milestone occurs by age 4 regarding self-perception?
Children begin to recognize themselves in mirrors and use terms like ‘me’ and ‘mine’.
What are the Big Five personality traits?
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
- Openness to experience
What role do social emotions play in the development of the self as a social actor?
They inform the social actor about their performance in the group.
Fill in the blank: The self as a social actor is primarily concerned with _______.
[traits and roles]
What does being a motivated agent entail?
Acting with direction and purpose to pursue self-chosen goals.
At what age do most children acquire a theory of mind?
By the age of 4
What is the significance of the ‘age 5-to-7 shift’ in child development?
Children begin to construct the self as a motivated agent.
How do children express their self-conceptions by the time they reach fifth grade?
They attribute complex traits to themselves and recognize important social roles.
True or False: Broad traits are easily changed through psychotherapy.
False
What influences the development of the self as a motivated agent?
The understanding that behavior is often motivated by inner desires and goals.
What psychological categories do people generally focus on when working on self-improvement?
- Social actor
- Motivated agent
- Autobiographical author
What do traits and roles represent in the context of the self as a social actor?
Traits represent perceived consistencies in social performance, while roles capture important structured relationships.
Fill in the blank: The philosopher _______ described the self as a reflexive project.
[Charles Taylor]
How does the self as an autobiographical author contribute to self-understanding?
By creating a narrative that integrates past experiences and future aspirations.
What is the relationship between social acceptance and evolutionary survival?
Individuals who do not get along well in social groups typically face challenges in survival and reproduction.
What is theory of mind and at what age does it typically develop?
The understanding that other people’s behavior is often motivated by inner desires and goals, typically develops by age 4.
What is the age 5-to-7 shift in child development?
A developmental period where children become more planful, intentional, and systematic in their pursuit of valued goals.
How does schooling impact children during the age 5-to-7 shift?
Schooling reinforces the shift by placing demands on students to work hard, adhere to schedules, focus on goals, and achieve success.
What factors contribute to children’s self-esteem during the elementary school years?
Their relative success in achieving cherished goals and the belief that they are making good progress.
What is the developmental challenge of identity in adolescence according to Erikson?
Establishing a psychologically efficacious identity by exploring options for life goals, values, vocations, and relationships.
What does committing to an integrated suite of life goals and values signify for adolescents?
It is considered one of the greatest achievements for the self as a motivated agent.
How does identity achievement evolve according to Erikson?
Identity achievement is provisional and continues to develop as individuals move into midlife, often changing goals and priorities.
What roles do the self as actor, agent, and author play in identity development?
They correspond to changing traits and roles, values and life goals, and constructing a narrative identity, respectively.
What is narrative identity?
An internalized and evolving story of the self that reconstructs the past and anticipates the future, providing unity, meaning, and purpose.
What is autobiographical reasoning?
The ability to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing personal experiences, typically developed in adolescence.
What is the significance of storytelling in adolescence and young adulthood?
It helps individuals author a narrative sense of self and refine their identity through sharing and reflecting on experiences.
What role does culture play in shaping narrative identity?
Culture provides favored plot lines, themes, and character types for constructing self-defining life stories.
What are redemptive narratives and their cultural significance in America?
Stories that track the move from suffering to enhanced status, often seen in the American dream and popular media.
True or False: Redemptive narratives are universally beneficial across all cultures.
False.
What key aspects should one consider to ‘know thyself’ in mature adulthood?
Apprehending social traits and roles, pursuing valued goals, and constructing a coherent life story.
Fill in the blank: The ability to derive conclusions about the self from personal experiences is known as _______.
[autobiographical reasoning]
What is the Big Five in personality traits?
A taxonomy encompassing:
* Extraversion vs. introversion
* Neuroticism vs. emotional stability
* Agreeable vs. disagreeableness
* Conscientiousness
What is autobiographical reasoning?
The ability to derive substantive conclusions about the self from analyzing one’s own personal experiences.
Typically developed in adolescence.
What are the categories encompassed by the Big Five personality traits?
- Extraversion vs. introversion
- Neuroticism vs. emotional stability
- Agreeable vs. disagreeableness
- Conscientiousness vs. nonconscientiousness
- Openness to experience vs. conventionality
Derived from studies of trait ratings in adulthood.
Define the ego according to Sigmund Freud.
An executive self in the personality that observes outside reality, engages in rational thought, and copes with competing demands of inner desires and moral standards.
How does Erik Erikson define identity?
A developmental task for late adolescence and young adulthood involving exploring alternative roles, values, goals, and relationships, and committing to a realistic agenda for life.
It entails commitments to new social roles and reevaluation of old traits.
What is narrative identity?
An internalized and evolving story of the self designed to provide life with some measure of temporal unity and purpose.
What are redemptive narratives?
Life stories that affirm the transformation from suffering to an enhanced status or state.
Highly prized in American culture as models for the good self.
What does reflexivity refer to in the context of selfhood?
The idea that the self reflects back upon itself; the I encounters the Me.
What does the self as autobiographical author mean?
The sense of the self as a storyteller who reconstructs the past and imagines the future to articulate an integrative narrative.
Define the self as motivated agent.
The sense of the self as an intentional force striving to achieve goals, plans, values, and projects.
What does the self as social actor entail?
The sense of the self as an embodied actor whose social performances are construed in terms of consistent self-ascribed traits and social roles.
What is self-esteem?
The extent to which a person feels worthy and good, influenced by success or failure in pursuing valued goals.
Define social reputation.
The traits and social roles that others attribute to an actor.
What is the Age 5-to-7 Shift?
Cognitive and social changes in early elementary school years leading to a more purposeful, planful, and goal-directed approach to life.
What does the ‘I’ represent in self-concept?
The self as knower, the subject who encounters itself (the Me).
What does the ‘Me’ signify?
The self as known, the object or target of the I’s knowledge and work.
What is the theory of mind?
The understanding that other people have minds containing desires and beliefs that motivate behavior.
Emerges around the age of 4.
Why are relationships essential to well-being?
Relationships are essential to well-being because they contribute to happiness and health.
List different forms of relationships.
- Family
- Friends
- Colleagues
- Lovers
What are the different aspects of well-being?
- Happiness
- Health
- Life satisfaction
- Positive feelings
- Low negative feelings
How can relationships enhance well-being?
Relationships can provide intimacy, comfort, relief from stress, and accountability.
True or False: Relationships always enhance well-being.
False
What is the basic human need discussed in the text?
The need to belong.
What does subjective well-being encompass?
- High life satisfaction
- Positive feelings
- Low negative feelings
What are objective social variables?
Objective social variables are based on evidence and focus on the presence and frequency of relationships.
Give an example of a subjective social variable.
Social support.
What is social integration?
Social integration is one’s degree of integration into social networks.
What is the scientific term for happiness in psychology?
Subjective well-being.
Fill in the blank: The presence of _______ is an important consideration when understanding relationships’ influence on well-being.
relationships
What can a lack of social connections lead to?
Loneliness and depression.
What is ostracism?
Ostracism is a form of social rejection and isolation.
How does the quality of relationships affect well-being?
Higher quality relationships are associated with increased happiness.
What is a common measure of well-being?
The Satisfaction with Life Scale.
What aspect of health is considered when examining well-being?
Being free of illness or infirmity.
True or False: Happiness depends solely on having many friends.
False
What did researchers find about the happiest students?
They were much more satisfied with their relationships.
What practices can lead to a temporary loss of social contact in some societies?
Shunning.
What did the research by Walen and Luchman (2000) investigate?
The effects of relationships on different components of subjective well-being.
What is a common misconception about relationships and happiness?
That having many friends guarantees happiness.
What type of relationships are associated with increased happiness for both teenagers and adults?
High quality relationships between parents and children
(Gohm, Oishi, Darlington, & Diener, 1998; Amato & Afifi, 2006)
Which components of subjective well-being are affected by social support and conflict?
- Life satisfaction
- Positive affect
- Negative affect
(Walen and Luchman, 2000)
True or False: Good relationships only translate to increased happiness.
False
Good relationships also translate to better health.
What two factors of social relationships affect a person’s health?
- Quality
- Quantity
(Cohen 1988; House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988)
Fill in the blank: Having a _______ social network can be detrimental to health.
small
What is defined as the closest form of social bond?
Intimate relationships
What is more important to happiness than a large social network?
Having a single confidante
(Taylor, 2010)
What type of relationships are bound by rules of politeness?
Formal relationships
What are informal relationships characterized by?
Relaxation and authenticity
What is the common way researchers investigate intimacy?
Examining marital status
What effect does the transition from singlehood to marriage have on subjective well-being?
Increases it
(Haring-Hidore, Stock, Okun, & Witter, 1985; Lucas, 2005; Williams, 2003)
What is associated with adverse effects on subjective well-being?
Divorce or the death of a spouse
True or False: The quality of a marriage does not affect overall life satisfaction.
False
The quality of marriage significantly affects life satisfaction.
What does conflict between partners lead to?
Lower subjective well-being
(Gere & Schimmack, 2011)
What are the three components of the dark triad in supervisor relationships?
- Psychopathy
- Narcissism
- Machiavellianism
(Mathieu, Neumann, Hare, & Babiak, 2014)
What impact do supportive supervisors have on their employees?
Higher likelihood of thriving at work
Fill in the blank: High quality work relationships can make jobs _______ and less stressful.
enjoyable
What is a common misconception about social relationships and happiness?
Their effects on happiness have been exaggerated
What is one crucial ingredient in the recipe for happiness?
Good social relationships
Define ‘confidante’.
A trusted person with whom secrets and vulnerabilities can be shared.
What is meant by ‘subjective well-being’?
How people experience the quality of their lives in terms of life satisfaction and emotional judgments.
What is ‘social support’?
Provision of psychological and material resources that benefit an individual.
What are the most visible elements of culture?
Dress, cuisine, and architecture
How is culture defined in the context of this chapter?
A pattern of meaning for understanding how the world works, shared among a group of people
What is the purpose of understanding cultural processes?
To help people get along better with others and be more socially responsible
What is cultural intelligence?
The ability to understand why members of other cultures act in the ways they do
What is the difference between individualism and collectivism?
Individualism emphasizes personal goals, while collectivism emphasizes group goals
Define ‘self-construal’.
The way individuals perceive, comprehend, and interpret the self in relation to others
What are the four levels of reality according to the Yanomamö tribe?
Abandoned level, earthly level, heavenly level, and hell-like level
What is situational identity?
The concept where a person identifies differently based on context or situation
What is the main research method used by social psychologists studying culture?
Interviews as a primary research methodology
What did the 2004 study by Hazel Markus and colleagues explore?
Class culture as it relates to well-being in different social classes
What common themes were identified by Markus’s research participants regarding ‘the good life’?
- Health
- Family
- Enjoyment
- Financial security
What was a significant finding regarding life satisfaction and education in Markus’s study?
Participants with a Bachelor’s Degree emphasized enjoyment, while high school graduates emphasized financial security
What is ethnocentric bias?
The influence of personal biases on research outcomes, often without the researcher being aware
What is the cumulative nature of culture?
Cultural knowledge is stored and grows across generations
What are the three ways to think about culture mentioned in the text?
- Progressive cultivation
- Ways of life
- Shared learning
What is enculturation?
The process through which individuals learn and share cultural knowledge
How can understanding culture as learned help in self-awareness?
It allows individuals to recognize that their preferences are influenced by cultural learning
True or False: Culture is a fixed script that does not change over time.
False
What are some examples of cultural differences that can affect behavior?
- Approaches to punishment
- Views on premarital sex
- Respect for elders
What is a common cultural practice in Canada regarding gift-giving?
Bringing a bottle of wine to a host’s home
What is a common cultural practice in India regarding gift-giving?
Bringing sweets and often setting the gift aside to be opened later
What is the significance of understanding cultural similarities?
It helps in appreciating both cultural differences and commonalities
Fill in the blank: Cultural knowledge is _______.
Cumulative
What is the term for the ability to understand and appreciate differences between cultures?
Cultural intelligence
Cultural intelligence is increasingly important in a globally connected world.
Who is Harry Triandis and what has he studied?
A cross-cultural psychologist who studied culture in terms of individualism and collectivism
Triandis’ background influenced his curiosity about cultural differences.
Define individualism.
A cultural trend where individuals define themselves as unique and seek personal freedom
Common in societies like Australia and the United States.
Define collectivism.
A cultural trend where the group is prioritized over individual preferences
Common in societies like Korea and Taiwan.
What are the two dimensions of individualism and collectivism?
Vertical and horizontal dimensions
Vertical societies have status differences, while horizontal societies emphasize equality.
What is self-construal?
The way people define their identity in relation to others
It can be independent or interdependent.
What characterizes the independent self?
Defined by stable traits and personal traits drive behavior
Common in individualistic cultures.
What characterizes the interdependent self?
Defined by social contexts and context drives behavior
Common in collectivistic cultures.
How do people with an independent self typically describe themselves?
Using personal traits such as ‘I am honest’
Reflects an emphasis on individuality.
How do people with an interdependent self typically describe themselves?
Using relationships such as ‘I am a sister’
Highlights their connection to others.
In Western cultures, what typically triggers feelings of anger?
Violations of the self and personal wants
Anger is often seen as a response to personal insults.
In interdependent cultures, how is anger viewed?
As a disruption of harmony between people
Anger is unpleasant when it affects relationships.
What is enculturation?
The process of learning cultural behaviors and norms from one generation to the next
It explains how cultural practices are passed down.
What is cultural relativism?
The principle of valuing cultural practices from the perspective of that culture
It promotes understanding but can limit criticism of harmful practices.
What does positive cultural relativism advocate?
Intercultural empathy and respect
Encourages understanding cultural practices without extreme judgments.
What is the potential downside of cultural relativism?
It can prevent criticism of harmful cultural practices
This may lead to overlooking serious ethical issues.
What is observational learning?
Learning by observing the behavior of others
A key method through which cultural behaviors are learned.
Fill in the blank: The cultural trend where the primary unit of measurement is the group is known as _______.
Collectivism
Fill in the blank: The cultural trend where the primary unit of measurement is the individual is known as _______.
Individualism
What is the difference between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism?
Ethnocentrism involves viewing other cultures through one’s own cultural lens, while cultural relativism emphasizes understanding cultures on their own terms
Ethnocentrism can lead to bias and misunderstanding.
What role do parents play in cultural learning?
They are primary influences on children’s behavior and beliefs
Through explicit teaching and modeling behaviors.
What is the significance of rituals in culture?
Rituals teach important cultural values and behaviors
Examples include bar and bat mitzvahs or Buddhist monk training.
What is the exchange of wedding rings during a marriage ceremony an example of?
Cultural practice
This practice is prevalent in many cultures.
What does self-construal refer to?
The extent to which the self is defined as independent or as relating to others.
What is situational identity?
Being guided by different cultural influences in different situations.
What is a standard scale in research?
A research method in which all participants use a common scale, typically a Likert scale.
Define value judgment.
An assessment about the basic ‘goodness’ or ‘badness’ of a concept or practice based on personal preferences.
What is value-free research?
Research that is not influenced by the researchers’ own values, morality, or opinions.
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex refers to the biological category of male or female, while gender refers to the cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity and femininity.
What are gender roles?
Gender roles are the behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture.
Define gender identity.
Gender identity refers to a person’s psychological sense of being male or female.
Define sexual orientation.
Sexual orientation is the direction of a person’s emotional and erotic attraction towards members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes.
What percentage of the population identifies as transgender?
An estimated 0.6% of the population identifies with a gender that does not match their biological sex.
True or False: Gender is always binary.
False.
What are some terms used to describe individuals who do not conform to the gender binary?
- Genderqueer
- Gender nonbinary
- Genderfluid
- Agender
- Bigender
What major law related to transgender bathroom rights was passed in North Carolina in 2016?
The Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act (commonly called House Bill 2 or HB2).
What are the three ways gender differences can be categorized?
- Actual gender differences
- Gender roles
- Gender stereotypes
What is one actual gender difference related to language skills?
Girls develop language skills earlier and know more words than boys.
What behavior do boys exhibit more than girls in terms of aggression?
Boys exhibit higher rates of unprovoked physical aggression than girls.
Fill in the blank: Gender _______ refers to the beliefs and expectations about the typical characteristics of men and women.
stereotypes
At what age can children consistently identify their own gender?
By their third birthday.
What theory suggests that children actively organize behaviors into gender categories?
Gender schema theory.
What does social learning theory propose about how children learn gender roles?
Children learn gender roles through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.
What is gender discrimination?
Differential treatment based on gender.
What is sexual harassment?
Unwanted treatment related to sexual behaviors or appearance.
What is one common form of sexual harassment experienced by high school students?
Unwanted touching or comments.
True or False: Research shows that parents treat their male and female children similarly.
False.
What is the role of cultural emphasis on gender in developing gender stereotypes?
It leads children to pay attention to gender as a key source of information about themselves and others.
What is the term for unwanted treatment related to sexual behaviors or appearance?
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment often manifests as unwanted touching, comments, jokes, or derogatory names.
By the end of high school, what percentage of boys and girls have experienced some form of sexual harassment?
Most have experienced some form
Common experiences include unwanted touching or comments.
Who is more likely to encourage gender-stereotypical play, fathers or mothers?
Fathers
Fathers are particularly inclined to encourage sons in gender-stereotypical activities.
What is a significant finding regarding how parents communicate with sons compared to daughters?
Parents talk about numbers and counting twice as often with sons
Parents also discuss science in more detail with sons than daughters.
At what age do children typically play in gender-segregated groups?
By age 3
Children expect a high degree of conformity in these play groups.
What is ambivalent sexism?
A concept of gender attitudes encompassing both positive and negative qualities
It includes hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.
What does hostile sexism refer to?
Negative attitudes of women as inferior and incompetent relative to men
What is benevolent sexism?
The perception that women need to be protected, supported, and adored by men
How do gender stereotypes contribute to societal inequalities?
They maintain gender inequalities in society
What legal change occurred in the United States in 2011 regarding LGBTQ+ rights?
Don’t Ask Don’t Tell was repealed
What significant event in gender rights occurred in 1920?
19th Amendment (women’s Suffrage Ratified)
What is the definition of gender identity?
A person’s psychological sense of being male or female
What does gender schema theory postulate?
Children actively organize behavior and attributes into gender categories or schemas
What is the term for individuals who may identify as having no gender?
Agender
What are the two components of ambivalent sexism?
- Hostile sexism
- Benevolent sexism
What does the term ‘genderfluid’ refer to?
An individual who may identify as male, female, both, or neither at different times
True or False: Children who are perceived as gender atypical are more likely to be bullied.
True
What is the biological category of male or female referred to as?
Sex
What does the term ‘cisgender’ mean?
Individuals whose gender matches their biological sex
What significant legal act was passed in 1964 in the United States?
Civil Rights Act, which outlaws sex discrimination
Fill in the blank: Gender _______ refers to differential treatment on the basis of gender.
discrimination
What is the focus of social learning theory regarding gender roles?
Gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling
What does gender constancy refer to?
The awareness that gender is constant and does not change with external attributes
What is the meaning of the term ‘genderqueer’?
An umbrella term for individuals who do not identify with and/or conform to the gender binary
What event in 1993 established that sexual harassment in the workplace is illegal?
Supreme Court ruling
