Week 15: Aging Flashcards
What is adolescence defined as?
A period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10–20)
What triggers the physical changes associated with puberty?
Hormones
What cognitive improvements occur during adolescence?
Improvements in complex and abstract thought, attention, memory, processing speed, and metacognition
Why do adolescents have a heightened propensity for risky behavior?
Increases in sensation-seeking and reward motivation precede increases in cognitive control
What changes occur in parent-child relationships during adolescence?
Redefinition where adolescents strive for more autonomy; parental monitoring becomes more salient
What is the role of peer relationships during adolescence?
Important sources of support and companionship, but can also promote problem behaviors
How do same-sex peer groups evolve during adolescence?
They evolve into mixed-sex peer groups
What are the four identity statuses described by Marcia?
- Foreclosure
- Identity diffusion
- Moratorium
- Identity achievement
What physical changes occur during puberty for boys?
- Growth spurt in height
- Growth of facial hair
- Deepening of voice
What physical changes occur during puberty for girls?
- Growth spurt in height
- Breast development
- Beginning of menstruation
What is the average age of onset for puberty in girls?
10–11 years
What is the average age of onset for puberty in boys?
11–12 years
What are the two types of antisocial behavior identified by Patterson’s model?
- Early starters
- Late starters
What is the significance of ‘deviant peer contagion’?
The process by which peers reinforce problem behavior, increasing the likelihood of future problem behavior
What are the two categories of romantic relationships during adolescence?
- Short-lived relationships
- Long-term committed partnerships
What does identity formation involve according to Erikson?
Successful development is indicated by identity formation versus role confusion
What are the gender differences in rates of anxiety and depression during adolescence?
Females have rates of anxiety about twice as high and depression 1.5 to 3 times as high compared to males
What are the implications of academic achievement during adolescence?
It sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities
Fill in the blank: Adolescence is often characterized as a period of _______ change.
transformation
True or False: Romantic relationships during adolescence have no impact on emotional and behavioral adjustment.
False
What factors shape the behavior of adolescents and how others respond to them?
- Nationality
- Gender
- Ethnicity
- Socioeconomic status
- Religious background
- Sexual orientation
- Genetic factors
What is the developmental period called that captures changes out of adolescence and into adulthood?
Emerging adulthood
What is the role of parental monitoring during adolescence?
It becomes more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents
What is the relationship between anxiety, depression, and social relationships in adolescents?
Anxiety and depression exacerbate problems in social relationships, contributing to stability over time
What is the importance of academic achievement during adolescence?
Markers of positive adjustment and sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities
High achievement can prevent unemployment or underemployment in adulthood.
What factors can diversity span during adolescence?
Spirituality, age, culture, immigration status, physical ability, gender identity
Diversity encompasses a wide range of dimensions influencing adolescent experiences.
How do biological changes during adolescence generally present?
Relatively universal features associated with puberty and cognitive changes
Examples include physical growth and brain development.
What influences adolescents’ opportunities for risk-taking?
Circumstances that are environmentally variable, such as laws and values specific to their location
Different countries may have varying supports and sanctions for adolescent behaviors.
How do cultural norms affect adolescents’ family and peer relationships?
They shape expectations around parental control and decision-making involvement
In some cultures, parents retain control while in others, adolescents share or take control.
What is the association between early puberty and outcomes for adolescents?
Worse outcomes for girls than boys, linked to associating with older peers
Early puberty can lead to increased risk of early sexual behavior and substance use.
What challenges do ethnic or sexual minority adolescents face?
Discrimination that nonminorities may not encounter
This can create unique developmental challenges.
What role do genetic variations play in adolescent development?
They contribute to diversity and can affect susceptibility to environmental factors
Gene X environment interactions highlight differential susceptibility.
What are the three main types of changes characterizing adolescent development?
Biological, cognitive, and social changes
Each type influences adolescent behavior and identity formation.
What does identity formation during adolescence often involve?
A period of exploration followed by commitments to particular identities
This process is crucial for adjustment during adolescence.
What is the relationship between brain changes and risky behavior in adolescents?
Reward-processing centers develop more rapidly than cognitive control systems
This leads to increased sensitivity to rewards over negative consequences.
What is ‘crowds’ in the context of adolescent peer groups?
Adolescent peer groups characterized by shared reputations or images
Crowds can influence identity and behavior.
What is deviant peer contagion?
The spread of problem behaviors within groups of adolescents
This phenomenon can exacerbate risky behaviors.
Define ‘differential susceptibility’.
Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences
This concept explains variability in adolescent responses to their environments.
What does ‘foreclosure’ refer to in identity development?
Individuals commit to an identity without exploration of options
This can limit personal growth and self-discovery.
What is ‘homophily’ in adolescent relationships?
The tendency of adolescents to associate with peers who are similar to themselves
This can reinforce shared behaviors and identities.
What is ‘identity achievement’?
Individuals have explored different options and then made commitments
It represents a successful outcome in identity formation.
What characterizes ‘identity diffusion’?
Adolescents neither explore nor commit to any roles or ideologies
This can lead to confusion and lack of direction.
Define ‘moratorium’ in the context of identity development.
A state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made identity commitments
This phase is important for personal growth.
What is ‘psychological control’ in parenting?
Parents’ manipulation of and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world
This can involve invalidating feelings and pressuring specific thought patterns.
What is the proposed new life stage between adolescence and young adulthood?
Emerging adulthood
What age range does emerging adulthood typically cover?
Ages 18 to 25
List the five features that distinguish emerging adulthood.
- Age of identity explorations
- Age of instability
- Self-focused age
- Age of feeling in-between
- Age of possibilities
True or False: Emerging adulthood is a stage primarily found in non-industrialized countries.
False
What significant change has occurred in the median age of entering marriage in the United States since 1960?
Increased to 27 for women and 29 for men
What is the average number of job changes for individuals aged 20 to 29 in the United States?
Seven
Fill in the blank: The age of identity explorations is a distinctive feature of _______.
Emerging adulthood
What does the instability characteristic of emerging adulthood often manifest as?
Frequent moves from one residence to another
During emerging adulthood, individuals are primarily focused on _______.
Themselves
What feeling do most emerging adults report regarding adulthood?
Feeling in-between
What percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in the U.S. believe they will achieve their life goals?
89%
What demographic changes have influenced emerging adulthood in OECD countries?
- Increased participation in postsecondary education
- Rising median ages for entering marriage and parenthood
How does the experience of emerging adulthood differ between Europe and Asian industrialized countries?
- Similar marriage and parenthood ages
- Differences in individualism vs. collectivism
In Asian cultures, what is emphasized as an important criterion for becoming an adult?
Supporting parents financially
True or False: In Western cultures, premarital sex is normative by the late teens.
True
What is the current experience of emerging adulthood in non-industrialized countries?
Still growing, but primarily a minority experience
What is the typical age for marriage in non-industrialized countries?
Around age 20
What trend has been observed in the median ages for entering marriage and parenthood in non-industrialized countries?
Rising in recent decades
Fill in the blank: The theory of emerging adulthood was based on research involving about _______ Americans.
300
What do governments in European countries provide to support emerging adults?
- Tertiary education funding
- Job finding assistance
- Generous unemployment benefits
What is one major difference in sexual norms between Western and Asian emerging adults?
Premarital sex and cohabitation are rare in Asia
What is the age range for emerging adulthood?
Approximately ages 18 to 25
What are the primary features of emerging adulthood?
- Identity explorations
- Instability
- Focus on self-development
- Feeling incompletely adult
- A broad sense of possibilities
True or False: The majority of young people in non-industrialized countries experience emerging adulthood.
False
What is the gross enrollment ratio?
Total enrollment in a specific level of education, expressed as a percentage of the eligible official school-age population for that level
What demographic primarily experiences emerging adulthood in non-industrialized countries?
Wealthier segment of society, mainly the urban middle class
Fill in the blank: The belief system that emphasizes the duties and obligations that each person has toward others is called _______.
Collectivism
What is the main challenge faced by emerging adults according to the text?
Sorting through opportunities and dealing with anxiety and depression
What is the belief system that exalts freedom, independence, and individual choice?
Individualism
What are OECD countries?
Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, comprised of the world’s wealthiest countries
What is the significance of tertiary education for emerging adults?
It helps them transition successfully to the next stages of their lives
What impact does waiting to take on adult responsibilities have on emerging adults?
Allows them to obtain education and training for today’s economy
True or False: The cost of tertiary education has decreased in many countries.
False
What is the potential benefit of making crucial decisions about love and work later in life?
More mature judgment and better long-term choices
Fill in the blank: The less economically advanced countries that comprise the majority of the world’s population are known as _______ countries.
Non-industrialized
What conclusion does the text make about the future of emerging adulthood?
It is likely to become normative worldwide by the end of the 21st century
What can societies do to enhance the transition of emerging adults to adulthood?
Expand opportunities for obtaining tertiary education
What is tertiary education?
Education or training beyond secondary school
How has the transition to adulthood changed over the past half-century?
It has occurred later than in the past
What observation did Saraswathi and Larson (2002) make about adolescence and emerging adulthood?
Middle-class youth in certain regions have more in common with each other than with poor youth in their own countries
What age group has traditionally been the focus of research on aging?
People over age 65 and the very old.
What do contemporary theories of aging recognize about the aging process?
Aging is complex and lifelong, influenced by earlier experiences and social contexts.
What are the four aspects of psychosocial aging discussed in the text?
- Cognitive aging
- Changes in personality
- Self-related beliefs
- Social relationships
- Subjective well-being
By what year is the U.S. older population expected to double compared to 2010?
2030.
What is the life course perspective on aging?
It highlights the effects of social expectations, normative timing of life events, and cohort membership.
What does fluid intelligence refer to?
Information processing abilities such as logical reasoning and reaction time.
What is crystallized intelligence?
Abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge, such as vocabulary tests.
True or False: Older adults generally perform better than young adults on memory recall tasks.
False.
What cognitive decline is associated with aging related to memory tasks?
Working memory becomes less efficient.
What is one explanation for cognitive decline in older adults?
Slowing of processing speed.
Fill in the blank: Older adults often outperform young adults in _______.
Social and emotional challenges.
What changes occur in the Big Five personality traits with aging?
- Neuroticism decreases
- Openness decreases
- Conscientiousness increases
What is subjective age?
How old a person feels and how they categorize themselves into an age group.
What is the Convoy Model of Social Relations?
A model suggesting that social connections are maintained through exchanges of social support.
What does Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory propose?
Motivational goals shift from information gathering to emotion regulation with age.
What are the potential health benefits of positive social relationships in older adults?
Better health outcomes compared to unmarried peers.
True or False: Older adults tend to have larger social networks compared to younger adults.
False.
What is a common characteristic of older marriages according to research?
Enhanced positive interactions and reduced negative interactions.
What is the relationship between personality traits and life outcomes in adulthood?
Traits like conscientiousness predict job success, health, and longevity.
What is the significance of life review in advanced old age?
Helps individuals confront and cope with the challenges of aging.
What is a notable trend regarding subjective age after early adulthood?
Most people feel younger than their chronological age.
Fill in the blank: Older adults who adapt positively to changes in appearance report higher _______.
Well-being.
What are the implications of negative interactions in long-term relationships for older adults?
They can have complex effects, sometimes being perceived as valid feedback or hurtful.
What are the consequences of positive and negative aspects of relationships?
Complex and can vary based on context
Criticism from a partner may be seen as valid feedback in some contexts but hurtful in others.
What characterizes the parent-child tie across the life span?
Paradox of solidarity, conflict, and ambivalence
Supported by research from Fingerman et al. (2006).
How does well-being differ across the life span?
Depends on how well-being is measured
Factors influencing well-being include age, health, personality, social support, and life experiences.
What is global subjective well-being?
Individuals’ overall perceptions of their lives
Includes life satisfaction and judgments about living the best life possible.
What is the hedonic treadmill?
A concept suggesting that people quickly adapt to life events and return to a neutral baseline of well-being
Initially argued by Diener et al. (2006).
Which life events have been shown to influence well-being?
- Widowhood
- Marriage
- Unemployment
Different events have varying impacts on well-being.
What is hedonic well-being?
The emotional component of well-being, including positive and negative affect
Positive affect includes happiness; negative affect includes stress.
How do experiences of positive and negative affect change with age?
Positive affect is highest in young and older adulthood; negative affect tends to decrease with age
Sadness is lowest in early and later adulthood.
What does Ryff’s model of psychological well-being propose?
Six core dimensions of positive well-being
Includes self-acceptance, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations.
What are the three criteria of successful aging according to Rowe and Kahn?
- Avoidance of disease and disability
- Maintenance of high physical and cognitive functioning
- Active engagement in social activities
These criteria guide research and interventions related to aging.
What is the role of physical activity in successful aging?
Considered one of the pillars of successful aging
Supports maintenance of cognitive functioning and overall health.
What is the average life expectancy?
Mean number of years that 50% of people in a specific birth cohort are expected to survive
Typically calculated from birth.
Define ‘convoy model of social relations’.
Theory suggesting that social exchanges change with age and impact health and well-being
Emphasizes frequency, types, and reciprocity of social interactions.
What distinguishes crystallized intelligence from fluid intelligence?
- Crystallized intelligence: application of knowledge and experience
- Fluid intelligence: ability to reason and solve novel problems
These types of intelligence represent different cognitive abilities.
What are longitudinal studies?
Research methods collecting information from individuals at multiple time points
Allows tracking of age-related changes over time.
What does socioemotional selectivity theory explain?
Reduction of social partners in older adulthood focusing on emotional needs
Older adults select social partners based on emotional satisfaction rather than information gathering.
What is the definition of successful aging?
Avoiding disease, maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning, and engaging actively in life
Emphasizes a holistic approach to quality of life in older age.
Fill in the blank: The ability to focus on relevant information while suppressing irrelevant information is called _______.
Inhibitory functioning
What is subjective age?
How old or young a person feels and how they categorize themselves
This construct reflects personal perceptions of aging.
True or False: Older adults report more negative affect than younger adults.
False
Research indicates older adults report more positive and less negative affect.
