W11: Invertebrate Physiology (Physiology Of Resistance: Insect Immunity & Insecticides) [Dr. Blair] Flashcards

1
Q

Main pathogens that attack insects? (4)

A
  • Fungi.
  • Viruses.
  • Nematodes.
  • Bacteria.
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2
Q

Term used to refer to these pathogens?

A

Entomopathogens.

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3
Q

What is the infection route of viruses?

A

Infection route is through consumption/being eaten.

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4
Q

What is the infection route of bacteria?

A

Infection route is through consumption/being eaten.

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5
Q

Which pathogens enter/infect an insect via consumption/being eaten? (2)

A
  • Viruses.
  • Bacteria.
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6
Q

What are the infection routes of nematodes/parasitic nematodes? (2)

A
  • Natural openings like the mouth, anus & spiracles.
  • Cutaneous penetration, through direct penetration through the insect’s cuticle.
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7
Q

What are the infection routes of fungi? (2)

A
  • Cuticular penetration, through penetration into an insect’s cuticle (outer shell).
  • Respiratory infection, where insects inhale fungal spores through their spiracles.
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8
Q

Insect immune system attributes? (4)

A
  • Innate immune system.
  • Immediate but non-specific response.
  • Pre-programmed response to certain pathogens but no immunological memory.
  • Not adaptive.
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9
Q

Mammalian immune system attributes? (3)

A
  • Innate & adaptive responses.
  • Respond to certain pathogens with immunological memory.
  • Quicker & efficient in future exposures.
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10
Q

Types of insect immunity? (3)

A
  • Physical barriers/response.
  • Cellular response.
  • Soluble response.
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11
Q

Physical response?

A

= the exoskeleton (chitin) & gut/tracheal linings act as physical barriers to keep pathogens in or out.

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12
Q

Physical barriers in the insect immune system? (2)

A
  • Exoskeleton (chitin acts as the first line of defence).
  • Gut/tracheal linings.
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13
Q

Cellular response?

A

= insect immune system defends insect through immune cells (hemocytes) found in the haemocoel.

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13
Q

Hemocytes is equivalent to what in humans?

A

White blood cells.

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14
Q

Immune cells?

A

= molecules that fight pathogens.

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15
Q

Soluble response?

A

= where immune cells such as enzymes, melanin & peptides (defensin/attacin) help the insect fight off pathogens.

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16
Q

What about insect wounds?

A

In the case of insect wounds such as punctured wounds, hemocytes act as platelets and become black due to melanin which contains pigment.

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17
Q

What about the more severe wounds like loss of limbs?

A

In the case of limb losses, hemocytes and melanin work together to clot the wound, but limb regeneration can occur if the insect is in the juvenile stage (instar/nymphs) and not in the adult stage.

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18
Q

Is limb regeneration possible?

A

Yes, but it depends on when the insect loses the limb. If an insect loses the limb as a juvenile (instar/nymph) it is possible due to its ability to molt. If an insect loses the limb as an adult it is impossible due to its inability to molt.

19
Q

Anything else: Parasitoid wasps?

A

= unique group of wasps that lay eggs on or within a host organism, especially caterpillars and beetles, and ultimately kill the host as the developing larvae feed on the host’s body for sustenance.

20
Q

Pesticides?

A

= chemical/biological agents that are used to control/eliminate pests like insects or other organisms that damage crops, spread disease, or cause harm to livestock or humans.

21
Q

Pesticides attributes? (2)

A
  • Globally high manufacture & usage of insecticides.
  • Help manage populations in agriculture & disease vectors.
22
Q

Types of pesticides? (4)

A
  • Insecticides.
  • Herbicides.
  • Fungicides.
  • Rodenticides.
23
Q

Pesticide type that we will focus on?

A

Insecticides.

24
Q

Insecticide?

A

= type of pesticide that targets insects by disrupting vital processes like the nervous system or growth.

25
Q

Insecticides attributes? (3)

A
  • Have 1000s of formulations (names) with active ingredients.
  • Depending on formulation it will have a mode of action (MoA) of killing the insect.
  • Are dangerous to health, use as guided.
26
Q

Eg of a common insecticide?

A

DOOM.

27
Q

DOOM attributes? (4)

A
  • Active ingredient is pyrethroids.
  • MoA is neurotoxic.
  • Use it as suggested.
  • Strip colour on product indicates the product’s toxicity.
28
Q

Types of insecticides modes of action? (3)

A
  • Neurotoxins.
  • Growth regulators (IGR).
  • Biological insecticides.
29
Q

Neurotoxins?

A

= interfere with nervous system pathways/signalling, causing overexcitement, paralysis and ultimately death of the insect.

30
Q

Neurotoxins attribute?

A

Often used in malaria-control sprays.

31
Q

Growth regulators (IGRs)?

A

= interfere with the natural growth/development (larvae) of the target insect by mimicking hormones like the Juvenile hormone/chitin inhibitors to prevent maturation or development, and ultimately death.

32
Q

Biological insecticides?

A

= derived from natural organisms (bacteria/fungi/viruses).

33
Q

Biological insecticides attributes? (2)

A
  • More targeted than typical chemical insecticides.
  • Can be Bt maize where when insects ingest the toxin, it leads to its death.
34
Q

Eg of Biological insecticides?

A

Bt Maize.

35
Q

Explain Bt Maize eg?

A

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces crystalline (Cry) proteins that are toxic to Lepidoptera when ingested to deter them from damaging maize/crops.

36
Q

Aren’t we at risk if there are toxic proteins in Bt Maize?

A

No, it is harmless to humans.

37
Q

The picture on pesticides around the world?

A

Represents how pesticide use has increased drastically as we have to feed the increasing population & prevent disease

38
Q

Issues with using pesticides excessively?

A

It has non-target effects such pollution, where pesticides may enter/infiltrate into the soil, water, air and other plants through the wind. Therefore, some are banned such as Paris green & DDT.

39
Q

Egs of banned pesticides? (2)

A
  • Paris Green.
  • DDT.
40
Q

The Physiology of Resistance process?

A

As the same pesticide is applied over time from the first generation to later generations of pest insects, pest insects become more resistant to the pesticide over time.

41
Q

Ways that insects can become resistant to insecticides? (3)

A
  • Metabolic intoxification.
  • Target-site mutation.
  • Behavioural response.
42
Q

Metabolic intoxification?

A

= when enzymes detoxify/break down the insecticide before it reaches its target site or lethal levels.

43
Q

Target site mutation?

A

= when mutations can prevent the insecticide from binding, this often eliminates an entire group of insecticides (MoA).

44
Q

Behavioural response?

A

= when insects alter their behaviour to avoid exposure to the insecticide.

45
Q

How do we solve this issue of insecticide resistance by insects? (3)

A
  • Manufacturing new formulations.
  • Rotation of insecticide types/MoA.
  • Integrated management through using both biological & chemical controls.
46
Q

Super summary? (3)

A
  • Immunity (innate immune system, hemocytes).
  • Insecticides (modes of action, extensive usage = resistances).
  • Resistance (various forms of resistance, metabolic/mutations/behaviour).