W1-6 flashcards
nervous system divisions
peripheral
autonomic
somatic
sympathetic
parasympathetic
central
central nervous system
- brain, cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
- sensory & motor neurons sent to/from
- relay information between your brain and the rest of your body
sensory (afferent) nerve fibres
From the PNS to the CNS (e.g. touch of our skin, taste from our tongue)
cranial nerves
olfactory
optic
oculomotor
trochlear
trigeminal
abducens
facial
vestibulocochlear
glossopharyngeal
vagus
accessory
hypoglossal
motor (efferent) nerve fibres
From CNS to PNS to effect muscles
olfactory nerve I
Sense of smell (afferent)
optic nerve II
Ability to see (afferent)
oculomotor nerve III
Ability to move & blink your eyes (efferent)
trochlear nerve IV
Ability to move your eyes up and down or back and forth (efferent)
Trigeminal nerve V
Sensations in your face and cheeks, taste and jaw movements (both)
Abducens nerve VI
Ability to move your eyes (efferent)
facial nerve VII
Facial expressions & sense of taste (both)
vestibulocochlear nerve VIII
Sense of hearing and balance (afferent)
Glossopharyngeal nerve IX
ability to taste and swallow (both)
Vagus nerve X
Digestion and heart rate (both)
Accessory nerve XI
Shoulder and neck muscle movement (efferent)
Hypoglossal nerve XII
Ability to move your tongue (efferent)
what is the hearing nerve?
Vestibulocochlear nerve VII
what are the speech and swallowing nerve
Trigeminal V
facial VII
Glossopharyngeal IX
vagus X
accessory XI
hypoglossal XII
nerve fibre types
- general somatic afferent
- general visceral afferent
- special somatic afferent
- special visceral afferent
- general somatic efferent
- general visceral efferent
somatic vs visceral
somatic = body wall muscles
visceral = glands or organs
vestibulocochlear VIII
Vestibular nerve = balance
Cochlea = hearing
general vs special
general = touch, pain, temp, pressure
special = vision, hearing, taste, and smell
Epineurium
wraps around the entire nerve – comprised of many fascicles, & arteries
perineurium
bundles many nerve filaments into fascicles
endoneurium
wraps around each nerve filament
coronal & frontal plane
side to side (start jumps)
horizontal / transverse plane
cuts the body in half from the waist (leaning forwards or backwards)
medial plane
vertically passes through the middle (being chopped into two even halves)
saggital plane (median)
a vertical plane which passes down the midline of the body (similar to medial plane)
flexion
decreases the angle between the bones (bending of the joint)
extension
a straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts
gliding
the surfaces of bones slide past one another in a linear direction (chewing)
axial skeleton
- central & core of the body
- Includes the skull, cranium, sternum, ribs & vertebrae
appendicular skeleton
- Body parts that attaches to the axial skeleton
- Includes the clavicle, scapula, pelvis, legs, arms etc
vertebral column
the core part of the axial skeletal system that supports the head, arms & trunk, and is the scaffold for breathing mechanisms
vertebral column - movements
- Sagittal plane movements (flexion & extension)
- coronal plane (side bending)
- transverse plane (rotation)
vertebral column - components
33 segments
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
5 sacral vertebrae
1 (4) coccygeal vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae
C1-C7 = the upper section of the spine that provides support for the weight of your head
Thoracic vertebrae
T1-T12 = helps us stand upright & protects our internal organs (not as flexible)
Lumbar vertebrae
L1-L5 = provide stability for your back & allow for a point of attachment for many muscles and ligaments.
Sacrum
S1-S5 = a shield-shaped bony structure that helps strengthen the pelvis
Coccyx
C1 – C4 = the base of your spine that supports your weight & helps you keep your balance when you’re sitting down
Extension of the vertebrae
gaps in the vertebrae allow for the thoracic area to extend more flexibly, creating greater extension of the back.
vertebrae
a series of bones that make up the vertebral column (or spine)
vertebrae components
- Vertebral Body (bare the bodies weight
- vertebral arch
Vertebral Arch
forms the lateral and posterior aspect of each vertebrae & supports spinous and transverse processes
vertebral Body
- bares the bodies weight
- provides attachment for discs between the vertebrae
vertebral canal
multiple vertebrae are joined together, where the foramen makes a long tube or canal
Intervertebral foramen
smaller spaces that allow spinal nerves to pass between the spinal cord & body regions.
Joints
formed between typical vertebrae between the bodies to allow for movement
types of joint movement
Cartilaginous joint movement = more movement
Fibrous joint movement = usually immovable & lack a joint cavity
intervertebral discs
Between each vertebra is an intervertebral disc that is filled with the nucleus pulposus, which provides cushioning for the spinal column
Rectus abdominus
attached to the 5th, 6th, 7th costal cartilages of lower sternum that depresses the lower ribs
External obliques
attached to the coxal bone and lower 8 ribs that pulls the lower 8 ribs downwards
Internal obliques
attached to the coxal bone and lower 4 ribs that pulls the lower ribs downward
Transverse abdominis
attached to the coxal bone and lower 4 ribs that pulls the lower ribs downward & forces the abdominal wall inward
Scalene muscles
three paired muscles in the lower back (Anterior, Middle, Posterior) that allows for flexion at the neck, and act as accessory muscles of respiration
respiratory system
takes up oxygen from the air we breathe (inspire) and expels the unwanted carbon dioxide (expire)
upper respiratory tract
- sinuses (drains mucus)
- nose (breathes in
- nasal cavity (passageway for air entering the body)
- pharynx (passageway for air entering the RS)
lower respiratory tract
- larynx (breathing, sound and protects trachea against food aspiration)
- trachea (connects your larynx (voice box) to your lungs)
- bronchi (connecting to your trachea for direct airflow to your lungs)
- bronchioles
lungs - parietal pleura
Inner chest wall is covered by parietal pleura, which allows for the expansion of the ribcage so we can breathe
hearing structures
- outer ear (pinna, external auditory meatus, Tympanic membrane)
- middle ear (ossicles & Ligaments & muscles)
- inner ear (cochlea, auditory nerve)
hearing process
- Sound waves travel through ear canal & strike the ear drum.
-SW enters through the pinna, and is funneled through the external auditory canal - causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate
- Ossicles amplify this sound wave.
- Stapes move the vibrations in a piston like motion to the bone labyrinth structure.
- perilymph fluid in the bone labyrinth structure draws these vibrations into a spinal system.
- SW travel through the cochlear
- SW cause waves in the SCALA MEDIA - which has the ORGAN of CORTI
- this is how these are stimulated
hearing impairments
Conduction deafness = poor sound conduction to the fluids of the inner ear
Sensorineural deafness = Damage to the neural structures (from the cochlear hair cells to the auditory cortical cells)
epiglottis
acts like lid covering over the glottis - during swallowing it will fold over and protect the glottis/ opening
alveoli
very thin air filled sacs that allows for easy diffusion of gas
Conducting zones
- Structures that don’t participate in gas exchange
- provide rigid passageways that allow air to reach alveoli
Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, bronchioles
Respiratory zones
- participate in gas exchange
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs & alveoli
lungs - pleural cavity, fluid and membranes
- each lung is covered by a thin membrane (visceral pleura)
- inner chest wall covered by parietal pleura
parietal pleura - breathing
- covers lungs + lines interior wall of the chest cavity
- allows lungs to slide along easily
- therefore, assists expansion & contraction of lungs to breathe
conchae - sinuses
- covered by mucus membrane
- increase SA:V so they can provide a humidifying air that passes through before it enters the lungs
thorax
The area of the body between the neck and the abdomen that allows the ribcage to expand and contract during breathing
thorax - breathing
- inspiration = the diaphragm contracts & pulls downward
- the muscles between the ribs also contract & pull upward
- This increases the size of the thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure inside.
- therefore = air moves in and fills the lungs
boyles law
- the relationship between volume & the pressure of gas
- outlines that if an amount of gas has a certain temperature, increasing its volume = a decrease in pressure
boyles law - breathing
- inspiration = size of thoracic cavity increases when the lungs expand
- this increases the volume
- causing pressure in lungs to decrease - due to air coming in
pleural membranes & fluid support lung movement
- PM & PF form seal in inner thoracic wall
- seal allows thoracic cavity to change size, shape, volume
expiration process
- volume of thoracic activity decreases
- pressure within lungs increases
- diagphram = returns to resting position
- external intercostal muscles = relax & reduce thoracic cavity
inspiration proccess
- volume of thoracic activity increases
- pressure within lungs decreases
- diagphram flattens = contracts
- external intercostal muscles = elevate ribs & sternum (air in)
tidal volume
amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs within each respiratory cycle
inspiratory reserve volume
amount of air forcibly inhaled after normal tidal volume (deep breathing)
expiratory reserve volume
extra air above the normal volume that can be forcefully exhaled out (exercise)
vital capacity
total useable volume of the lungs that you can control
quiet breathing
- breathing during rest, where the diaphragm & external intercostal muscles relax
- decreases chest volume
- increases pressure in lungs
forced breathing
- internal intercostal muscles working to decrease size of thoracic cavity, to allow the ribcage to push all the air out
- exercise & speaking
muscles - quiet breathing
- diaphragm
- external intercostals
muscles - forced breathing
- diaphragm & intercostal muscles = contract
- scalenes = contract & lift thoracic wall - increasing lung V
- internal/external obliques = contract - forcing abs upwards against diaphragm (moves air out)
Breathing apparatus sub division
Pulmonary apparatus = lungs & airways
Chest wall = rib cage wall, abdominal wall, diaphragm & abdominal content
Pulmonary = chest wall unit
rib cage function
elevate and depress to support breathing
rib cage structure
ribs (1-10)
Directly (1-7)
Indirectly (8-10)
Coastal cartilage
helps to prolong the ribs forward & contribute to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax
sternum
a long flat bone located in the central part of the chest that protects the thoracic organs from trauma
clavicles
S-shaped bone that rests horizontally at the sternum across the upper part of the ribcage
Coastovertebral joints
allows for the Elevation and Depression of the ribs occurs at the costovertebral joints
rib elevation
During inspiration the ribs are elevated
rib depression
during expiration the ribs are depressed
True ribs
1-7 attach to the sternum and elevate the ribs by moving in a superior and anterior motion
ribs - labelled
- articulator facets
- head
- neck
- costal angle
- shaft
- costal groove
- site of articulation (with costal cartilage)
false ribs
8-10 don’t attach directly to the sternum and move in a bucket handle motion to increase or decrease the thoracic cavity during respiration
floating ribs
(11-12) attach to the thoracic spine and protect our vital organs
muscles of the thorax
- Thoracic Diaphragm
- Intercostal muscles (External & Internal)
~ Accessory inspiratory muscles
~ Accessory expiratory muscles
Thoracic Diaphragm
the primary muscle of inspiration that is domed shape, allowing it to contract and flatten
EXTERNAL Intercostal muscles
- allow for INSPIRATION to occur by contracting the ribs upwards, creating space in the thoracic cavity and expanding the lungs for air to enter
INTERNAL Intercostal muscles
- allow for EXPIRATION to occur by contracting and compressing the thoracic cavity, decreasing its size and volume to expel air out
Accessory inspiratory muscles
- provide assistance to the main breathing muscles when additional power is needed
- Elevate top & anterior rib cage
- lift the 3rd, 4th, 5th ribs to increase space for air in the lungs
Accessory expiratory muscles purpose
- activated when we experience high respiratory load (coughing) or low inspiratory muscle capacity
- Thoracic volume can be quickly decreased by large abdominal muscles
- pulls down lower ribs = causing expiration
Accessory expiratory muscles involved
~ Rectus abdominus
~ internal & external obliques
~transversus abdominus
larynx
connects the throat to the trachea, that allows our airways to be protected and provides us with the ability to produce phonation
larynx location
anterior of the neck at the C3-C6 vertebrae
thyroid cartilage
facilitates the superior movement of the larynx during swallowing
cricothyroid cartilage
complete ring of cartilage around the trachea
upper larynx
- Quadrangular membrane
- Ventricular membrane
lower larynx
- Conus elastics
larynx region - Supraglottal region
ensure that food or liquids do not go in the wrong direction and into the lungs
False vocal folds / ventricular folds
Sit above the true vocal cords and help prevent food from entering the trachea when swallowing
true vocal folds
Formed by superficial border of the conus elastics that allow us to produce sound
cricoarytenoid joint
- connects the cricoid cartilage and the arytenoid cartilage
- allows the vocal fold to open or close
- supports movement = rotate and glide
- pitch changes
Intrinsic laryngeal muscles
types
- Adductors & abductors
- Tensors & relaxers
purpose
- open/ close vocal folds
- Tense / relax vocal folds
Extrinsic laryngeal muscles
- Hyoid & laryngeal elevators & depressors
- works to elevate & depress larynx
adduction - speech
- movement of the vocal folds toward the midline
- glottis folds CLOSED = for phonation to occur
- arytenoid cartilages
Abduction - speech
- folds separated for voiceless sounds & breathing (rest position)
- opens glottis for whispering + breathing
- posterior cricoid cartilage & arytenoid cartilages
length change - speech
- change in tension of vocal folds
- stretches & thins vocal folds which changes pitch
glottis positions
- triangles joined = voiced
- triangles upside down = whispering
- triangles seperated/opened = breathing
Phonation
-the production and utterance of speech sounds
-voicing begins when air is pushed from the lungs through the glottis = opening between the vocal folds in the larynx)
sound production
- True vocal folds are being vibrated via expired air acting upon them
- vocal cords are adducted = (bringing folds together for phonation)
- air coming up from the lungs, hitting the glottis area is stopped
- This combines this expired air + vocal folds which produces phonation
Vocal attacks
Simultaneous attack: air released as folds compress (most words)
Breathy attack: air released before folds compress e.g) - Harry
Glottal attack: folds compress before air released e.g) - “I” vowels
phonation process
1) vocal folds are compressed together
2) air pressure from trachea rises, exerting pressure on the vocal fold - to push them apart
3) medial surface of vocal folds seperate at bottom first and return to midline at the bottom first
4) vocal folds suck back together - adduct
5) expired air hits bottom part causing them to separate
Bernoulli effect
‘if volume flow is constant, velocity must increase at an area of constriction, but have a corresponding decrease of pressure at the constriction”
Bernoulli effect - phonation
vocal cords - force of air pushes fold apart and negative pressure created pulls them back together
vibration of vocal folds
- high intraglottal pressure pushes vocal folds away from midline
- elastic recoil of tissue overcomes lower edges of vocal folds causing them to move towards midline - ‘sucked back’
how do vocal attacks occur
timing in which air hits glottis and vocal cords do something
fundamental frequency
- rate of vocal fold vibration
- expressed in Hertz, cycles/ second
- closest perceptual correlate = pitch
- determined by vocal fold stiffness & effective vibrating mass
vocal fold stiffness
- stiffer the vocal cords the higher rate of vibration
- therefore, higher pitch
longitudinal tension
changing the length + tension of the vocal folds, changes the rate of vocal fold vibration
average fundamental frequencies
male = 130 Hz
female = 220 Hz
mechanism - changing vocal fold stiffness
- external force exerted by the cricothyroid muscles
- the internal force exerted through thyroarytenoid muscles
laryngeal mechanisms - changing fundamental frequency
- medial compression = amount can change the effective mass of the vibrating portions of the vocal folds (changes pitch)
- laryngeal elevation / depression = can change vocal fold stiffness (FF + pitch)
raising pitch
lengthening + tensing the vocal folds increase the frequency of vibration (stretching & thinning)
what muscles aid in raising pitch
cricothyroid
posterior cricoarytenoids
thyroarytenoids
lowering pitch
- shortening and relaxing vocal folds decreases the frequency of vibration (short and thick) (thyroartenoids involved)
possible sounds - breathy
whispy, raspy, weak etc
possible sounds - glottal fry
- the lowest vocal register
- popping or rattling sound of a very low frequency
possible sounds - whisper
- vowels are produced by forcing air through a narrow posterior glottal chink
phonation - aging
- cartilages ossify and calcify, muscle atrophy, connective and epithelial tissues change
- overall slowing of movements
voice disorders - causes
- Vocal misuse/abuse
- nerve damage
- trauma
- illnesses
sound
vibrations that travel through the air and can be heard when they reach a person’s ear.
how is sound measured
Amplitude = loudness
Frequency = pitch
muscles of the thorax - forced inspiration
- Thoracic Diaphragm
-Phrenic nerve - External intercostals
- Intercostal nerves
muscles of the thorax - forced expiration
- Internal intercostals depress ribs & reduce size of thorax
- Abdomen is compressed by abdominal muscles (push more air out)
Accessory inspiratory muscles
- scalene (elevate first two ribs for air space)
- pectoral muscles (lift the 3-5th ribs to increase space for air in the lungs)
- sternocleidomastoid muscle (creates space for your lungs to take in air)
Accessory expiratory muscles
- Rectus abdominus
- internal & external obliques
- transversus abdominus
= (pulls the ribs down for decreasing size and volume of thoracic cavity
muscles involved in the extension of the vertebral column
- erector spinae group
- transversospinales group
larynx skeleton
= comprised of 6 cartilages
single cartilages
- epiglottis
- thyroid
- cricothyroid
paired cartilages
- aryntenoid
- corniculate
- cuniform
larynx components
laryngeal inlet = opening
vestibule = entrance
ventricle = hollow cavity in organ
supraglottic cavity
glottis = vocal cords location
infraglottic cavity =
larynx nerves
superior laryngeal nerve = sensory (vocal cords)
recurrent laryngeal nerve = motor
suprahyoid
- elevates larynx by lifting the hyoid bone
- raises pitch
infrahyoid
- lowers hyoid bone & pitch
posterior cricothyroid
- open glottis ABDUCT
- nerve supply = CNX
lateral cricothyroid
- close glottis ADDUCT
- nerve supple = CNX
cricothyroid
- lengthens true vocal folds
