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veterinary science 2.1 > urinary system (wk 7) > Flashcards

urinary system (wk 7) Flashcards

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1
Q

what does the suffix Ren- mean?

A

kidneys, eg Renal = related to the kidneys

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2
Q

what does the suffix Nephr- mean?

A

kidneys, eg Nephritis = inflammation of the kidneys

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3
Q

what does the suffix -itis mean?

A

-itis = inflammation

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4
Q

what does the prefix Pyelo- mean?

A

renal pelvis of the kidney, eg Pyelonephritis = inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidneys

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5
Q

what does the prefix Glomerulo- mean?

A

Glomeruli, eg Glomerulonephritis = inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidneys

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6
Q

what does the prefix Cyst- mean?

A

bladder, eg Cystitis = inflammation of the bladder

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7
Q

what does the suffix -uria mean?

A

a condition of the urine, eg Anuria = absence of urine production or very low urine production (a = without)

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8
Q

what is a compound of a cation and an anion, so electrically neutral?

A

salt

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9
Q

the steep gradient of which electrolyte between the fluid inside and outside the cell makes it critical for all electrophysiological processes, that is, action potentials

A

primary functions of sodium (Na+)

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10
Q

similar to sodium, the steep concentration gradient between the fluid inside and outside the cell makes which electrolyte critical to the functioning of neurons and muscle cells?

A

primary functions of potassium (K+)

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11
Q

which electrolyte is one of the main components of bone, it is also required for muscle contraction, plateau phase of the cardiac action potential, intracellular signalling, blood clotting, and the excitation of neurons?

A

primary functions of calcium (Ca2+)

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12
Q

the high concentration of which electrolyte in the fluid outside the cells makes it an important osmotic particle, also a critical component of some physiological processes such as the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?

A

primary functions of chloride (Cl-)

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13
Q

which electrolyte is critical to multiple cellular processes, as it activates many enzymes, also an important component of bone tissue?

A

primary functions of magnesium (Mg2+)

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14
Q

The ion composition of plasma and IF is roughly the same - true or false?

A

true - ions can move between the intravascular and interstitial fluid compartments, so the ion composition of each compartment is roughly the same

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15
Q

The protein concentration of plasma and IF is roughly the same - true or false?

A

false - proteins cannot usually escape from capillaries, so proteins are largely absent from interstitial fluid

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16
Q

what is IF?

A

interstitial fluid - fluid found in the spaces around cells (leaked out of capillaries). helps bring oxygen and nutrients to cells and to remove waste products from them.

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17
Q

Which fluid compartment contains the highest concentration of sodium - ECF or ICF?

A

ECF - higher concentrations of sodium inside the cell and higher concentrations of potassium outside the cell is the basis of cell-cell communication

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18
Q

what is ICF?

A

intracellular fluid

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19
Q

what is ECF?

A

extracellular fluid

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20
Q

Water will move from a solution with lower osmolarity to a solution with higher osmolarity - true or false?

A

true - water moves to areas of higher osmolarity in order to reach equilibrium between the two solutions

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21
Q

what are nephrons?

A

the microscopic functional unit of the kidney, found in both the cortex and medulla - urine formed by the nephrons flows into the renal pelvis, then to the ureter

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22
Q

what is haematopoiesis, and is it a function of the kidneys?

A

production of blood cells - no

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23
Q

do the kidneys regulate red blood cell production in the bone marrow?

A

yes - by releasing a hormone called erythropoietin

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24
Q

which of: peristaltic contractions of ureteral smooth muscle, pressure in the renal pelvis and osmotic gradients do Not contribute to the flow of urine from the renal pelvis to the bladder?

A

osmotic gradients

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24
Q

What will happen to the GFR (glomerular filtration rate) if the diameter of the efferent arteriole decreases?

A

it will increase - constriction of the efferent arteriole “clogs the drain”. blood backs up within the glomerulus, which increases hydrostatic pressure and the GFR

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24
Q

what does ADH (antidiuretic hormone) do?

A

decreases water loss through the kidney

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25
Q

what does aldosterone do?

A

increases renal sodium reabsorption, which causes water retention and increased blood volume

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26
Q

does vasoconstriction increase peripheral resistance or blood volume?

A

peripheral resistance

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27
Q

what does ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) do?

A

increases sodium and water loss through kidneys

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28
Q

what does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) do?

A

increases sympathetic nervous system activity, increases sodium and water retention by the kidneys, causes vasoconstriction of arterioles

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29
Q

what is a mineralocorticoid produced in the adrenal gland, that causes an increase in the number of Na+/K+ pumps and Na+ transporters in the kidney tubules to increase permeability and reabsorption of Na+ from the filtrate? also results in secretion of K+ into the filtrate (Na+/K+ pump transports K+ in the opposite direction of Na+)

A

aldosterone

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30
Q

what is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland, promotes reabsorption of water into the blood and subsequently reduces urine output (by inserting aquaporins into the cells of the distal tubules and collecting ducts so water can be rapidly reabsorbed)?

A

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

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31
Q

what is the most important mechanism used by the urinary system to correct a high acid load?

A

generation of new bicarbonate (buffer) molecules

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32
Q

If a urine sample contains a high concentration of bicarbonate, which acid–base disorder would be suspected - acidosis or alkalosis?

A

alkalosis - if bicarbonate is being excreted in the urine, it means there is no excess H+ to be buffered

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33
Q

how do buffers correct metabolic alkalosis?

A

H+ ions are released

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34
Q

how does the respiratory system correct metabolic acidosis?

A

respiration slows to contain more CO2, which reacts to form H+ and HCO3-

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35
Q

how does the renal system correct metabolic acidosis?

A

bicarbonate is excreted in the urine so that H+ in the blood remains unbuffered

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36
Q

what is polyuria?

A

peeing more than usual

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37
Q

what is polydipsia?

A

drinking more than normal

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38
Q

what is urinary incontinence?

A

leaking urine

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39
Q

what is spraying in cats?

A

usually involves small volumes of urine sprayed onto vertical surfaces, with normal litter tray use

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40
Q

what is inappropriate urination in cats?

A

usually involves normal volumes of urine voided onto horizontal surfaces, without normal use of a litter tray at the same time

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41
Q

what clinical signs might an owner notice if the animal has problems with the urinary system?

A
  • drinking more than normal
  • leaking urine
  • straining
  • peeing more than usual
    *note - these signs are not exclusive to the urinary system
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42
Q

what animal is this? use communal dung piles for urination and defecation (with defecation usually occurring first), turn around and squat, have a caudally facing prepuce and urinate backwards?

A

camelids

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43
Q

What information can you gather by palpating the urinary bladder?

A
  • indication of size
  • content (eg is it gritty?)
  • if it is painful
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44
Q

how would you palpate a kidney on a dog - abdominal palpation or rectal palpation?

A

abdominal palpation - small animals can have bladder and kidneys palpated this way, whereas in large animals the body wall is too thick

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44
Q

how would you palpate the left kidney on a horse - abdominal palpation, or rectal palpation?

A

rectal palpation, and the right kidney is too far cranial to palpate at all

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45
Q

different species have different shaped kidneys. A vet performs abdominal palpation on a dog and reports that the kidneys feel lumpy. Is this likely to be normal?

A

no - dog kidneys are normally smooth

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46
Q

where is the penis located on cats?

A

(roughly under tail) caudally, ventral to the testicles and anus

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47
Q

what is unique about the penis of camelids?

A

The penis of camelids has a fibrocartilaginous process craniodorsal to the urethral opening, which means sedation/anaesthesia or an erection is necessary for examination

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48
Q

What anatomical difference between the urethra of the male and female cat predisposes male cats to obstruction of their urethra?

A

the male urethra is narrower and longer than the female

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49
Q

is marking behaviour or inappropriate urination an act of communication?

A

marking behaviour

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50
Q

true or false - both inappropriate urination and marking may be influenced by medical issues and stress?

A

true

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51
Q

How would you palpate the left kidney on a cow, and what would it feel like?

A

the left kidney on a cow can be palpated rectally. cattle have a lobulated kidney, so the surface feels lumpy (not smooth)

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52
Q

Which species is a os penis normally found in?

A

dog

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53
Q

which organs regulate fluid balance in the body?

A

gastrointestinal tract, kidneys

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54
Q

what is interstitial fluid?

A

the fluid between cells

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55
Q

what is intravascular fluid?

A

the fluid within blood vessels (that is, plasma)

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56
Q

what is intracellular fluid out of: fluid outside cells, fluid surrounding the brain, interstitial fluid, fluid inside blood vessels, fluid in between cells, fluid in joint cavities, fluid inside cells, and intravascular fluid?

A

intracellular fluid is just that - the fluid inside cells. everything else is extracellular.

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57
Q

the body loses water via two routes - what is sensible vs insensible water loss?

A

sensible water loss - measurable and noticeable, eg urination
insensible water loss - less noticeable and unmeasurable, eg water in faeces or evaporation from lungs or skin

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58
Q

What is the primary mechanism by which kidneys regulate fluid loss or retention in the body - adjusting glomerular filtration rate in the kidneys, adjusting reabsorption in the renal tubules, enhancing water absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, facilitating water excretion through the skin?

A

adjusting reabsorption in the renal tubules

59
Q

what hormone promotes water absorption in the collecting ducts?

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

60
Q

what increases the reabsorption of sodium and water in the renal tubules?

A

aldosterone - does the opposite of ANP

61
Q

what inhibits the reabsorption of sodium and water in the renal tubules?

A

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) - does the opposite of aldosterone

62
Q

what is released when blood pressure drops or blood sodium levels decrease?

A

renin

63
Q

what stimulates aldosterone and ADH release?

A

angiotensin II

64
Q

A rabbit has red urine. Is this abnormal?

A

this may be completely normal - rabbit urine can vary in colour from yellow to orange, brown and red. blood in the urine however is not

65
Q

what does specific gravity measure? (refractometer)

A

Specific gravity is a measure of the concentration of solutes (dissolved particles) in a liquid compared to the concentration of solutes in pure water. In the context of urine, specific gravity indicates the concentration of solutes in the urine

66
Q

A dog is showing clinical signs of dehydration (increased skin turgor, dry mucous membranes and sunken eyes). The dog’s urine specific gravity is lower than normal. Is this an expected finding?

A

no - more concentrated urine has a higher specific gravity

67
Q

does less concentrated urine have a higher or lower specific gravity?

A

lower specific gravity

68
Q

There is usually little to no protein in the urine. Why would that be?

A

proteins are usually too large to pass through the filtration membrane of the glomerulus

69
Q

There is usually no glucose in the urine. Why would that be?

A

glucose is normally reabsorbed in the proximal tubule

70
Q

When might ketones be present in healthy animals urine?

A

ketones can be present in the urine of healthy animals during a period of fasting/starvation

71
Q

Urine can be collected from a patient via free catch (collecting when the animal is voiding urine), via a urinary catheter (tube passed up the urethra into the bladder), or via cystocentesis (a needle inserted through the body wall into the bladder). How might the method of urine collection influence the amount of blood in the urine?

A

urine collected via free catch and catheterisation should not contain blood. urine collected via cyctocentesis may contain small amounts of blood from where the needle went into the bladder

72
Q

what is a dipstick?

A

diagnostic tool used to perform a quick analysis of various components in the urine. A plastic strip with multiple pads or reagent areas is dipped into a urine sample. The pads change colours as the chemical agents react with substances in the urine - eg protein, glucose, ketones and blood.

73
Q

what percentage of an animal’s body weight is made up of water?

A

60%

74
Q

of the 60% of an animal’s body weight made up by water, what fraction is intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid?

A

1/3 is intracellular fluid, and 1/3 is extracellular fluid

75
Q

1/3 of the 60% of an animal’s body weight made up by water is extracellular fluid. of this, what fraction is interstitial fluid vs plasma?

A

3/4 interstitial fluid, 1/4 plasma

76
Q

plasma is what proportion of the patients body weight?

A

5%

77
Q

should blood be in the urine of a healthy animal?

A

no, but the occasional red blood cell may be seen under the microscope

78
Q

Can you normally see ureters on a radiographs?

A

no - they are small structures and are overlaid by other larger structures with similar radiopacity

79
Q

What information can a radiograph give us about the structure of the urinary system?

A
  • rough structure of the kidneys (or kidney abnormalities such as cysts)
  • bladder: side, position, any mineralisation in the lumen
80
Q

What information can a radiograph give us about the function of the urinary system?

A
  • kidneys: not much
  • bladder: function via it’s size (eg is it emptying properly)
81
Q

When taking a radiograph of the bladder, the hindlimbs should be extended caudally, or flexed cranially?

A

extended caudally - this allows full visualisation of the bladder

82
Q

what is an electrolyte?

A

An electrolyte is a compound that ionises in solution, but in the body we generally refer to electrolytes as salts that dissociate into ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride ions.

83
Q

Which two body systems are the most critical for maintaining electrolyte balance?

A
  • endocrine
  • urinary
84
Q

Sodium concentrations in the cytosol (the fluid inside the cell) are generally very low. Why is this?

A
  1. the Na+/K+ ATPase pump
  2. the relatively low permeability of the plasma membrane to sodium ions, which prevents them leaking back in in large numbers
85
Q

when sodium channels open, the sodium ions follow their concentration gradient and rush into the cell, causing a net gain of positive charges for the interior of the cell and resulting in…

A

depolarisation of the cell membrane, a key event in the functioning of all excitable cells eg neurons and muscle cells

86
Q

what is low sodium concentration detected by?

A

the macula densa (specialised cells lining the distal tubule of the nephron)

87
Q

affect of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) on sodium ion reabsorption?

A

decreases it

88
Q

how does the RAAS system work?

A

renin is released from the kidneys when low sodium is detected, resulting in the release of angiotensin II which stimulates the release of aldosterone (which increases sodium ion reabsorption)

89
Q

where is renin released from?

A

the kidneys juxtaglomerular (JG) cells

90
Q

If more sodium ions are reabsorbed in the kidney tubules, how does this influence the reabsorption of water?

A

more reabsorption of sodium ions leads to more reabsorption of water, as water follows sodium ions by osmosis

91
Q

angiotensin II leads to increased Na+ reabsorption in the proximal or distal tubule?

A

proximal

92
Q

aldosterone leads to increased Na+ reabsorption from the proximal or distal tubule?

A

distal

93
Q

Hypernatraemia - what is it?

A

an elevated sodium ion concentration in the blood.

94
Q

Hyponatraemia - what is it?

A

a decreased sodium ion concentration in the blood.

95
Q

Although hypernatraemia can impact the depolarisation of excitable cells, its most immediate and obvious effects are….?

A

due to the osmotic imbalances that it causes.

The most common cause of hypernatraemia is dehydration - a loss of body water. In this situation, water molecules are lost, but the number of sodium ions stays the same. This increases the osmolarity or tonicity of the extracellular fluid.

96
Q

like hypernatraemia, hyponatraemia is often not related to the absolute number of sodium ions, but rather to an increase in the number of water molecules - or overhydration. In this circumstance..?

A

cells are bathed in an hypotonic solution - one with lower osmolarity than the cytosol.

97
Q

true or false - sometimes hyponatraemia can occur with dehydration?

A

true - this occurs when sodium ions are lost along with water molecules - for example, during prolonged vomiting and/or diarrhoea.

98
Q

where are potassium ions mainly concentrated - intracellular fluid or extracellular fluid?

A

intracellular fluid

99
Q

what are the main functions of potassium ions?

A
  • the movement of K+ out of the cell down its concentration gradient is responsible for the repolarisation phase of the action potential
  • K+ is also the main factor to generating the resting membrane potential (basis for all the body’s electrophysiology)
100
Q

What is the sensor that detects changes in blood potassium concentration away from the setpoint?

A

chemoreceptors in the adrenal cortex sense changes in blood potassium concentrations

101
Q

Where is the control centre for regulating blood potassium concentrations?

A

the adrenal cortex primarily, which produces aldosterone in response to signals from the chemoreceptors

102
Q

insulin, aldosterone, and adrenaline all stimulate the uptake of potassium into cells - true or false?

A

true

103
Q

What is the effector involved in regulating potassium concentrations?

A

the main effector organs are the kidneys, main hormone aldosterone

104
Q

aside from high blood potassium levels, are there any other factors that stimulate the release of aldosterone?

A

yes - the RAAS (stimulated by low blood pressure, low blood volume and decreased Na+) will also trigger secretion of aldosterone. potassium ion imbalances may occur when these conditions arise

105
Q

The effects of excess or insufficient potassium ions are primarily electrophysiological in nature - true or false?

A

true

106
Q

what is hyperkalaemia?

A

excess potassium in the blood

107
Q

what is hypokalaemia?

A

potassium deficiency in the blood

108
Q

One of the most common causes of potassium imbalance in veterinary practice is urethral obstruction.

If an animal has an obstruction in its urethra, meaning it is unable to urinate, what effect would that have on potassium homeostasis?

A

the kidneys regulate K+ levels by excreting excess K+ in the urine. if urine flow is obstructed, then so is the flow of filtrate through the renal tubules. potassium that is filtered or secreted into the tubules cannot be removed through urine, resulting in hyperkalaemia

109
Q

what does hyperkalaemia (excess potassium in blood) do?

A

mild - results in a more positive resting membrane potential than normal, ie slightly depolarised. action potentials generated more easily, cells more excitable
severe - membrane so depolarised that cells are no longer excitable, shuts down every excitable cell in the body (incl. neurons and muscles) = death

110
Q

what does hypokalaemia do?

A

makes the resting membrane potential more negative, meaning the cells are hyperpolarised. stimulating an action potential in excitable cells (neurons and muscle cells) is more difficult, leading to muscle weakness and changes in mental status

111
Q

which of these processes in the body require calcium: muscle contraction, plateau phase of cardiac action potential, structural strength to bone, strengthening tooth enamel, intracellular signalling, neuronal synaptic transmission?

A

all of the above :)

112
Q

which of these processes are the main functions of phosphate: cellular signalling, bone and teeth formation, buffering, cellular energy metabolism, cellular membrane structure?

A

all of the above, and a component in ATP

113
Q

About 99% of the total calcium ions in the body are located in bone as part of hydroxyapatite salts. Phosphate ions are also part of hydroxyapatite crystals - this inorganic part of the bone cannot be built unless both calcium and phosphate are present. For this reason, they are regulated in tandem by the same hormones - true or false?

A

true

114
Q

Calcium is homeostatically and very tightly controlled via a negative feedback loop. This strict control is enabled by effectors at three different sites….?

A

bone tissue, the distal tubules of the kidneys, and the small intestine.

115
Q

The two main hormones involved in calcium and phosphate ion regulation are…

A

parathyroid hormone and vitamin D3 (calcitriol). However, many other hormones influence this balance as well, including calcitonin, cortisol, and oestrogens.

116
Q

Blood pH is maintained through a number of mechanisms. What are the main three mechanisms or systems used to maintain pH within the normal range?

A
  • respiratory system
  • urinary system
  • the body’s buffer systems
117
Q

Acids and bases in the body come from two main sources:
1. Those formed as a normal part of metabolic processes.
2. Those ingested as part of the diet
true or false?

A

true

118
Q

What is the biggest source of metabolic acid?

A

carbon dioxide - a byproduct of glucose catabolism. while CO2 isn’t an acid, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) which can then dissociate a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

119
Q

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered to be a volatile acid. What is a volatile acid?

A

volatile acids are acids that can be converted into gas and eliminated from the body through the respiratory system - CO2 being the primary example

120
Q

What is the difference between a volatile and non-volatile (or fixed) acid?

A

non-volatile acids cannot change to a gaseous state and therefore must be eliminated by the kidneys, eg lactic acid (produced during anaerobic metabolism)

121
Q

In the context of physiology, what is a buffer?

A

buffers are substances that help maintain a stable pH by resisting changes in H+ concentration when acids or bases are added to a solution

122
Q

There are three main chemical buffer systems in the body, what are they?

A
  1. carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion buffer system (most important)
  2. phosphate buffer system
  3. protein buffer system
123
Q

to limit the impact of a change in acid concentration. However, buffers are only able to compensate for an increase in acid load - they do not correct the problem. Why is that?

A

buffers don’t remove the excess acid from the system - they only temporarily neutralise it or shift it’s equilibrium

124
Q

Patsy the puppy develops severe diarrhoea. Animals with diarrhoea often lose bicarbonate because bicarbonate ions are present in significant amounts in the gastrointestinal tract, particularly in the intestinal fluids and secretions.

If we measured Patsy’s blood pH, what is it likely to be:
- lower than normal (more acidic)
- within the normal range
- higher than normal (more alkaline)?

A

lower than normal/more acidic

125
Q

Buffers respond to changes in the hydrogen ion concentration of body fluids to maintain it with the normal range. However, for these systems to work, the body fluids must contain adequate numbers of base ions, especially bicarbonate ions. The body must also have a way to eliminate hydrogen ions altogether to maintain a normal pH.
the two systems perform these tasks…?

A
  • Respiratory system
  • Urinary system
126
Q

which system controls the amount of volatile acids in the ECF/extracellular fluid?

A

the respiratory system

127
Q

which system controls the amount of non-volatile (fixed) acids in the ECF/extracellular fluid?

A

the urinary system

128
Q

what system controls the amount of bicarbonate ions in the ECF?

A

the urinary system

129
Q

Rimu the dog is anaesthetised with a drug that depresses the respiratory centre in the brain. As a result, Rimu’s respiratory rate falls. What will happen to the pH of Rimu’s blood if his hypoventilation continues?

A

it will decrease/become more acidic

130
Q

why does hypoventilation lead to decreased/more acidic blood pH?

A

hypoventilation leads to an accumulation of CO2 in the blood. as a result, more carbonic acid will be formed (from the CO2), which in turn will release more H+, leading to the decrease in pH

131
Q

Rimu’s respiratory rate rises during a run, but his blood pH remains within the normal range. Why doesn’t it rise with his respiratory rate?

A

hyperventilation makes the blood slightly more alkaline (less CO2) but rimu is also increasing his physical activity, so glycolytic catabolism and oxidative catabolism are occurring more rapidly and generating more CO2 - rimu is simply matching his respiratory rate to metabolic CO2 production, blood pH should stay normal

132
Q

what are the two possible reasons for development of acidosis?

A
  • when more H+ is added than buffers can bind
  • when the number of HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions decrease
133
Q

true or false - acidosis causes neurons to become less excitable, leading to signs of nervous system depression such as reduced responsiveness?

A

true

134
Q

what is respiratory acidosis?

A

Respiratory acidosis is a decrease in the pH of body fluids due to excess carbon dioxide

135
Q

What can kidneys do to compensate for the excessive CO2?

A
  • reabsorbing all available HCO3- (bicarbonate ions) so there are more buffers available
  • secreting H+ in filtrate to be buffered and eliminated in the urine
    *note - this takes hours or days to have noticeable effect on blood pH
136
Q

what is metabolic acidosis?

A

Metabolic acidosis is the addition of H+ to the extracellular fluid from acids that are produced as the result of metabolic processes - for example, lactic acid, uric acid or ketones. may also result from a loss of bicarbonate ions.

137
Q

The first compensatory response to metabolic acidosis is….?

A

respiratory compensation, in the form of hyperventilation (followed by the usual kidney stuff)

138
Q

What about PCO2 and HCO3- values for metabolic acidosis - higher or lower than normal?

A
  • PCO2 lower, due to the respiratory compensation
  • HCO3- also lower in blood, typically
139
Q

true or false - alkalosis can develop when HCO3- in body fluids decreases?

A

false

140
Q

two causes of alkalosis?

A
  • when H+ in the body fluids decreases
  • when more base ions are added to the body than buffers can use
141
Q

As with acidosis, there are two types of alkalosis: respiratory alkalosis and metabolic alkalosis. The compensatory response for both involves….

A

excretion of bicarbonate ions and retention of hydrogen ions.

142
Q

the main findings with respiratory alkalosis, in terms of pH, PCO2, and HCO3- are?

A

elevated blood pH and low PCO2, if HCO3- level is low it signifies partial compensation by the kidneys

143
Q

The most common cause of metabolic alkalosis in veterinary medicine is a loss of H+ as a result of prolonged vomiting (and loss of acidic stomach contents).
compensation for respiratory acidosis is both…

A

respiratory and renal

144
Q

The respiratory response to metabolic alkalosis is…?

A

hypoventilation - to retain CO2 and increase H+

145
Q

the renal response to metabolic acidosis is…?

A

retaining H+ and secreting HCO3- into the urine

146
Q

If we took an arterial blood sample from an animal with metabolic alkalosis, what would we expect to see in terms of pH, PCO2 and HCO3- values?

A

pH - high
PCO2 - high if respiratory compensation (hypoventilation) has occured
HCO3- high before renal compensation, then lower

147
Q
A

veterinary science 2.1 (22 decks)

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