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veterinary science 2.1 > respiratory system (wk 6) > Flashcards

respiratory system (wk 6) Flashcards

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1
Q

what does the prefix broncho- mean?

A

bronchi, eg Bronchoscopy = visual examination of the bronchi

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2
Q

what does the suffix -oxia mean?

A

oxygen, eg Hypoxia = inadequate oxygen supply to tissues

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3
Q

what do the prefixes pnoe- and pneum- mean?

A

air, breath, or lung eg Pneumonia = inflammation of the lungs, Apnoea = Temporary cessation of breathing

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4
Q

what does the prefix pulmo- mean?

A

lungs, eg Pulmonary = pertaining to the lungs

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5
Q

what does the prefix rhino- mean?

A

nose, eg Rhinitis = inflammation of the nasal mucous membranes

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6
Q

what does the prefix thoraco- mean?

A

thorax, eg Thoracotomy = surgical incision into the thorax

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7
Q

what comes first moving cranially to caudally - the pharynx or the larynx?

A

pharynx then larynx

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8
Q

A tube passing caudally between the arytenoid cartilages (two vertical thingies behind the epiglottis) will enter the: nasal cavity, oesophagus, or trachea?

A

trachea

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9
Q

How would blocking the structures of the conducting zone of the airways impair pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange?

A

prevents delivery of air to and from structures where gas exchange takes place - therefore preventing ventilation (gas exchange therefore can’t take place)

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10
Q

How would blocking the structures of the respiratory zone of the airways impair pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange?

A

ventilation would continue, as movement of air to the region of gas exchange would not be affected - but blocking the structures of the respiratory zone would directly impair gas exchange, as this is where it takes place

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11
Q

true or false - for any pressure gradient, more flow will occur when the flow is turbulent rather than laminar

A

false

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12
Q

which type of flow has the greatest resistance, turbulent or laminar?

A

turbulent

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13
Q

A horse is anaesthetised and placed on a mechanical ventilator. While monitoring the anaesthetic, you notice that the horse’s blood oxygen concentrations have fallen below normal and his carbon dioxide blood concentrations have risen above normal. should you increase the respiratory rate of the ventilator, or increase the tidal volume on the ventilator?

A

increase the tidal volume on the ventilator (unless it was already high, over-distension of lungs is dangerous)

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14
Q

If breathing rate and tidal volume remained constant, what would be the effect of an increase in dead space - alveolar ventilation will increase, alveolar ventilation will decrease, minute ventilation will decrease, minute ventilation will increase?

A

alveolar ventilation will decrease - dead space decreases the amount of air reaching the region of gas exchange

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15
Q

What is pulmonary gas exchange?

A

the diffusion of O2 from lung air into blood (down concentration gradient), and the diffusion of CO2 from blood into lung air (also down concentration gradient)

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16
Q

How could an animal increase the rate of diffusion of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane?

A

by increasing alveolar ventilation

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17
Q

If the O2 in the pulmonary capillaries decreases, what will happen to the O2 pressure gradient between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood - will it increase or decrease?

A

it will increase, meaning more O2 moves from the alveoli into the blood

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18
Q

What does atmospheric pressure determine - gas partial pressures in pulmonary arteries, how much air reaches the alveoli, partial pressure of each gas in inspired air?

A

partial pressure of each gas in inspired air

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19
Q

what does alveolar ventilation determine - gas partial pressures in pulmonary arteries, how much air reaches the alveoli, partial pressure of each gas in inspired air?

A

how much air reaches the alveoli

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20
Q

what does cellular activity determine - gas partial pressures in pulmonary arteries, how much air reaches the alveoli, partial pressure of each gas in inspired air?

A

gas partial pressures in pulmonary arteries

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21
Q

Which change would most enhance the amount of oxygen carried in the blood - increasing concentration of O2 in plasma, or increasing the haemoglobin concentration?

A

increasing the haemoglobin concentration, only about 1% of oxygen is carried in plasma (not water soluble)

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22
Q

Haemoglobin saturation can be observed visually (to a certain extent) in the mucous membranes of an animal. what colour would you expect with more oxyhaemoglobin - pink or bluish?

A

pink

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23
Q

Haemoglobin saturation can be observed visually (to a certain extent) in the mucous membranes of an animal. what colour would you expect with more deoxyhaemoglobin - pink or bluish?

A

bluish

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24
Q

which region of the brain is responsible for the basic breathing rhythm - brainstem, cerebellum, cerebrum?

A

brainstem

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25
Q

When you hold your breath, your brain senses that blood PO2 is dropping and stimulates the urge to breathe - true or false?

A

false - the urge to breathe when ventilation stops comes from an increase in PCO2, not the decrease of PO2

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26
Q

What type of epithelium lines the nasal cavity?

A

ciliated respiratory epithelium

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27
Q

Alveoli are reliant on alveolar macrophages for defence because they do not have a mucus layer or cilia. Why not?

A

it would add an extra layer for gasses to diffuse across

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28
Q

coughing reflex arc - sensory nerve fibres carry the signal to the brainstem, is this the afferent or efferent pathway?

A

afferent (towards)

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29
Q

coughing reflex arc - signals travel via motor nerves to the diaphragm, abdominal wall, and muscles, is this the afferent or efferent pathway?

A

efferent (away)

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30
Q

what does the integrating centre do?

A

integrates sensory information and coordinates a response

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31
Q

stertor or stridor - a gurgling or snoring sound, caused by air flowing past a soft tissue obstruction, such as an overly long soft palate. The sound is usually easily heard and can be variable in tone and pitch. It may occur during inspiration and expiration?

A

stertor

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32
Q

what is the purpose of increasing respiratory effort during exercise?

A

increasing alveolar ventilation

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33
Q

what is the equation for alveolar ventilation?

A

alveolar ventilation = (tidal volume - dead space) x respiratory rate

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34
Q

which species often breathe with an open mouth (excluding heat/stress) - sheep, dog, cow, cat, horse?

A

only dogs

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35
Q

what does dyspnoea mean?

A

respiratory distress, eg laboured or difficult breathing

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36
Q

changes in animal behaviour that show attempts to improve alveolar ventilation?

A
  • open mouthed breathing in species that do not normally demonstrate it
  • outstretched neck
  • abducted forelimbs (elbows away from thorax)
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37
Q

What is haemoglobin?

A

a protein in the blood that carries oxygen

38
Q

Haemoglobin with oxygen molecules attached is bright red and termed….

A

oxyhaemoglobin

39
Q

Haemoglobin without oxygen molecules attached is a darker shade of red and is termed….

A

deoxyhaemoglobin

40
Q

Which factor influencing mucous membrane colour is most dependent on normal function of the respiratory system - blood flow through peripheral tissue, or red colour of oxyhaemoglobin?

A

red colour of oxyhaemoglobin, peripheral tissue bloodflow isn’t respiratory system related

41
Q

Why do sounds occur in the lungs?

A

turbulent air flow

42
Q

Where would you expect it to be easier to hear lung sounds with a stethoscope - smaller airways, or trachea and larger airways?

A

larger airways - airflow is more turbulent there, which generates more sound

43
Q

what does PaO2 refer to?

A

partial pressure of arterial oxygen (how much oxygen is dissolved in the atrial blood)

43
Q

what does PO2 refer to?

A

partial pressure of oxygen

44
Q

what does PaO2 tell us?

A

how well gas exchange of oxygen is occurring (how efficiently oxygen is moving from the alveoli to the arterial bloodstream)

45
Q

Why is low PaO2 dangerous?

A

less oxygen in atrial blood, which decreases oxygen pressure gradient between the blood and tissue cells - less oxygen will move down the pressure gradient into tissue cells. also ATP issues (anaerobic metabolism used in oxygen deficiency)

46
Q

Why would the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) be useful to measure when assessing the function of the respiratory system?

A

if an animal’s alveolar ventilation is inadequate, an increase in PaCO2 is ALWAYS seen because CO2 isn’t being exhaled sufficiently (much more clear than PaO2 levels)

47
Q

Obtaining a venous blood sample is a simple process that does not require sedation or anaesthesia. The partial pressure of oxygen in venous blood can also be measured. However, it is not a very useful way to gather information about the function of the respiratory system compared to measuring PaO2. Why not?

A

because it shows oxygen levels after tissue gas exchange, which isn’t consistent

48
Q

What do we call the degree or percentage to which oxygen occupies available haemoglobin binding sites?

A

haemoglobin saturation (SaO2%)

49
Q

what does SaO2 refer to?

A

haemoglobin saturation (amount of oxygen occupying available binding sites)

50
Q

The degree of haemoglobin saturation (that is, the amount of oxyhaemoglobin formed) depends on….

A

the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood - hence why it binds in the lungs, and unloads in body tissues

51
Q

why is the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve a non-linear shape?

A

due to cooperative binding and release between O2 and haemoglobin - that is, the binding of the first molecule of O2 increases the affinity of the vacant binding sites for O2, and offloaded easily when needed in areas of low O2

52
Q

Why is it important that oxygen is readily released from haemoglobin at low PO2 values?

A

to ensure efficient oxygen delivery to tissues throughout the body, for example in a tissue with high metabolic activity and lower oxygen concentrations (such as muscle), oxygen is released more readily - allows effective oxygen delivery to tissues with varying metabolic demands

53
Q

Peripheral capillary saturation is an estimate of the percentage of…..

A

oxygenated haemoglobin in the blood, and is abbreviated as SpO2

54
Q

SpO2 is considered to be a useful estimate of….

A

SaO2.

55
Q

true or false - small changes to SpO2 may correspond to large changes in PO2

A

true

56
Q

what does a capnograph measure?

A

the concentration of CO2 in an animal’s upper airway at the end of each expiration (usually used in anaesthetised animals) - abbreviated, ETCO2

57
Q

what is ETCO2?

A

end tidal CO2 (concentration of CO2 in an animal’s upper airway at the end of each expiration) measured in mm Hg or kPa

58
Q

what measures ETCO2?

A

a capnograph

59
Q

true or false - at the end of expiration, the air exiting the airway is almost entirely alveolar gas?

A

true

60
Q

The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli is related to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood - the more carbon dioxide in the blood, the more carbon dioxide in the alveolus, assuming normal gas exchange and blood flow in the pulmonary capillary beds. true or false?

A

true

61
Q

ETCO2 may be used as an estimate of…

A

the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood (PaCO2)

62
Q

Sam the vet is monitoring Shady the cat, who is anaesthetised. What change would we see in Shady’s ETCO2 if Shady’s respiratory rate fell to 2 breaths per minute?

A

ETCO2 would rise

63
Q

Why is it important that blood pH is maintained within a narrow range?

A

H+ affects the structure of proteins and consequently the functions of enzymes, receptors, transport proteins and channel proteins. in order to ensure a stable concentration, H+ must be removed from the body at the same rate it is added

64
Q

what is the connection between CO2 and pH?

A

when dissolved in water, CO2 results in increased concentrations of H+ ions (effectively acts as an acid) which lowers pH

65
Q

how does the respiratory system help to maintain blood pH with the normal range?

A

increases in PaCO2 stimulate the rate and depth of breathing, which eliminates CO2 and prevents formation of H+ ions

66
Q

changes in PaO2, PaCO2 and concentration of H+ are detected by what?

A

peripheral chemoreceptors (send messages to respiratory centre in brainstem to increase stimulation of respiratory muscles = increased respiratory rate and tidal volume = increased alveolar ventilation)

67
Q

CO2 may diffuse across the blood-brain barrier into the cerebrospinal fluid where it is converted to H+. changes in cerebrospinal fluid pH are detected by what?

A

central chemoreceptors in the brainstem (send message to the respiratory centre to increase ventilation)

68
Q

abbreviation for peripheral capillary oxygen saturation?

A

SpO2

69
Q

what does SpO2 mean?

A

peripheral capillary oxygen saturation

70
Q

An animal’s PaCO2 is recorded as elevated (higher than the normal range). What can we say about the animal’s ventilation status - is it hyperventilating or hypoventilating?

A

the animal is hypoventilating

71
Q

what is hypoventilation?

A

Hypoventilation is breathing that is too shallow or too slow to meet the needs of the body

72
Q

what is hyperventilation?

A

breathing at an abnormally rapid rate, increases the rate of loss of CO2

73
Q

Which of the measurements below will change FIRST if a patient is hypoventilating - colour of the mucous membranes, PaCO2, PaO2, SpO2?

A

PaCO2

74
Q

Marama the vet is looking at a blood gas analysis and notes that the patient’s pH has increased (the patient is alkalotic). Which change in respiratory rate could cause this result - hyperventilation or hypoventilation?

A

hyperventilation

75
Q

Marama the vet is monitoring Mr Purr, a cat under general anaesthesia. If Mr Purr begins to hypoventilate, which of the parameters below is most likely to change first - ETCO2 (end tidal carbon dioxide reading from the capnograph) or SpO2 (pulse oximetry reading)?

A

ETCO2 (end tidal carbon dioxide reading from the capnograph)

76
Q

why do changes in CO2 levels show up faster than O2?

A

a small reservoir of O2 remains bound to haemoglobin for a while, CO2 failing to be exhaled is immediate

77
Q

what is the cranial boundary of the thoracic cavity - thoracic inlet, or thoracic wall?

A

the thoracic inlet

78
Q

the visceral pleura covers the organs - what’s another name for it?

A

the pulmonary pleura

79
Q

what’s the cavity formed between the two layers of pleura?

A

the pleural cavity - this usually contains only a minute volume of pleural fluid, but is termed a potential space as it can fill with much more fluid, tissue or air in disease conditions

80
Q

what is the caudal boundary of the thoracic inlet?

A

the diaphragm

81
Q

Do you predict that radiography would be a useful method of imaging the thorax?

A

yes - major structures have very different radio-opacities

82
Q

true or false - soft tissue + fluid has a different opacity to soft tissue + air?

A

true - soft tissue + water is more radiopaque

83
Q

what structures are in the mediastinum?

A

the heart, great vessels, thymus, oesophagus, trachea, nerves

84
Q

what does abducted vs adducted mean?

A

abduction - away from midline
adduction - towards midline

85
Q

On thoracic radiographs of a normal dog’s chest, would you expect to see the cranial vena cava?

A

no - not enough differences in radiopacity with surrounding structures

86
Q

On thoracic radiographs of a normal dog’s chest, would you expect to see the caudal vena cava and aorta?

A

yes

87
Q

On thoracic radiographs of a normal dog’s chest, would you expect to see the parietal pleura?

A

no

88
Q

On thoracic radiographs of a normal dog’s chest, would you expect to see the borders of the left caudal lung lobe or right cranial lung lobe?

A

no

89
Q

can thoracic radiography or ultrasound provide information about effectiveness of an animal’s ventilation?

A

no

90
Q

stertor or stridor - A high-pitched sound, caused by air flowing quickly past a rigid obstruction (typically the larynx). It can sound like a saw cutting through wood. is less obvious, occasionally is better appreciated by using a stethoscope over the cervical trachea. It is classically heard during inspiration and is associated with disease of the upper airway?

A

stridor

91
Q

which part of the respiratory tract is stridor typically associated with?
1. upper airway (nose-trachea)
2. lower airway (bronchi-alveoli)
3. pleural space
4. lung tissue

A
  1. upper airway (nose-trachea)

veterinary science 2.1 (22 decks)

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