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veterinary science 2.1 > cardiac system (wk 4) > Flashcards

cardiac system (wk 4) Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cardi- meaning?

A

heart, eg Cardiology = the study of the heart

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2
Q

Arterio- meaning?

A

arteries, eg Arteriosclerosis = hardening of the arterial wall

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3
Q

coron- meaning?

A

heart or coronary blood vessels, eg Coronary artery = blood vessel supplying the heart muscle

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4
Q

vaso - meaning?

A

blood vessels, eg
Vasodilation = widening of blood vessels

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5
Q

Ven or veno- meaning?

A

veins, eg Venodilation = widening of veins

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6
Q

How does a freshly oxygenated red blood cell travel from the pulmonary vein to the left hindlimb of a dog?

A

the red blood cell enters the left atrium from the pulmonary vein, and from there travels to the left ventricle, aorta, left external iliac artery and left femoral artery

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7
Q

A red blood cell leaves the left ventricle in order to supply oxygen to the small intestine. Trace the pathway the red blood will take to the capillary bed of the small intestine, and then trace its pathway back to the left ventricle.

A

the red blood cell travels via the aorta and cranial mesenteric artery to the capillary bed of the small intestine. it then enters a vein draining the capillary bed of the intestine which in turn will empty into the hepatic portal vein, move along hepatic portal vein into the leaky capillary bed of the liver. from there it will enter the hepatic vein, the caudal vena cava and then the right atrium of the heart. move to the right ventricle, then the pulmonary artery to the capillary beds of the pulmonary circulation for reoxygenation. after that it moves into the pulmonary vein, left atrium and left ventricle

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8
Q

what are leukocytes?

A

white blood cells

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9
Q

what are erythrocytes?

A

red blood cells

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10
Q

what are platelets?

A

otherwise known as thrombocytes, they help form blood clots to stop bleeding

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11
Q

what cells make up the buffy coat?

A

leukocytes and platelets

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12
Q

What is the difference between blood and plasma?

A

plasma is the yellowy liquid part of the blood that contains water, ions, nutrients, proteins, and waste products. blood contains plasma as well as red blood cells, leukocytes, and platelets

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13
Q

eosinophil - how can this be distinguished from other leukocytes?

A

contains pink-staining granules

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14
Q

eosinophil - what is it’s basic function?

A

releases granules to kill parasites

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15
Q

lymphocyte - how can this be distinguished from other leukocytes?

A

it has a large spherical nucleus and a thin rim of cytoplasm

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16
Q

lymphocyte - what is it’s basic function?

A

it defends against external threats, such as bacteria and viruses, and internal threats such as cancer cells

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17
Q

monocyte - how can this be distinguished from other leukocytes?

A

it has a nucleus that is often kidney bean shaped and lots of cytoplasm that often contains vacuoles

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18
Q

monocyte - basic function?

A

it enters tissues and destroys foreign organisms and material

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19
Q

neutrophil - how can it be distinguished from other leukocytes?

A

contains colourless granules

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20
Q

neutrophil - basic function?

A

engulfs and destroys bacteria

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21
Q

which of these features of red blood cells are unimportant for oxygen transport - high haemoglobin content, lack of mitochondria, biconcave disc shape, lifespan of ~120 days

A

life span - limited due to structural oxidative damage

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22
Q

Describe the location of the heart. Consider which body cavity the heart is in, the position of the base and apex, and how to locate it on a standing animal.

A

the heart is in the middle of the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum, base shifted to the right and apex to the left. when viewing a standing animal from the side, the heart is located between the elbows

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23
Q

How does the heart receive oxygen and nutrients?

A

the heart muscle is supplied with oxygen and nutrients by the coronary arteries, which branch directly off the aorta.

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24
Q

Is it possible for a cardiac muscle cell to contract independently of its neighbours? Explain why or why not.

A

nope - the cardiac muscle cells are joined together by gap junctions. when one cell depolarises and contracts, ions will flow into the neighbouring cell and stimulate them to contract

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25
Q

during atrial systole, which valves are open?

A

the atrioventricular valves

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26
Q

during atrial systole, which valves are closed?

A

semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic)

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27
Q

which chambers are contracting during atrial systole?

A

atria

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28
Q

what is the direction of blood flow during atrial systole?

A

from atria to the ventricles

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29
Q

what valves are open in ventricular systole?

A

the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic)

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30
Q

which valves are closed in ventricular systole?

A

the atrioventricular valves

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31
Q

which chambers are contracting during ventricular systole?

A

the ventricles

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32
Q

what is the direction of blood flow during ventricular systole?

A

from the ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta

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33
Q

which valves are open during complete diastole?

A

atrioventricular valves

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34
Q

which valves are closed during complete diastole?

A

semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic)

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35
Q

which chambers are contracting during complete diastole?

A

none - all chambers are relaxed

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36
Q

what is the direction of blood flow during complete diastole?

A

from the veins into atria and then into ventricles

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37
Q

what does systole mean?

A

it’s the period of the cardiac cycle where the heart muscle contracts and blood is pumped out of the chambers

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38
Q

what does diastole mean?

A

period of the cardiac cycle where the heart muscle relaxes and blood fills the chambers

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39
Q

what is end-diastolic volume (EDV)?

A

the amount of blood in the ventricle ready for ejection at the end of ventricular diastole

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40
Q

what is end-systolic volume?

A

the amount of blood that remains in the ventricle at the end of systole

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41
Q

what is ejection fraction?

A

the percent of total ventricular volume ejected in one contraction

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42
Q

what is stroke volume?

A

the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle during ventricular systole

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43
Q

closure of what valves produces the first “lub” sound (S1)?

A

closing of the left and right atrioventricular valves

44
Q

closure of what valves produces the second “dub” sound (S2)?

A

closing of the aortic and pulmonary valves (semilunar valves)

45
Q

what does the P wave of an electrocardiogram waveform represent?

A

atrial depolarisation

46
Q

what does the QRS complex of an electrocardiogram waveform represent?

A

atrial repolarisation and ventricular depolarisation

47
Q

what does the T wave of an electrocardiogram waveform represent?

A

ventricular repolarisation

48
Q

when does the aortic valve close?

A

when aortic pressure is greater than ventricular pressure

49
Q

what component of the heart sets the heart rate in healthy animals?

A

the sinoatrial node (SA)

50
Q

what is cardiac output?

A

the volume of blood ejected per minute by the left ventricle into the aorta (measured in mL/minute).

51
Q

what is the equation for cardiac output?

A

cardiac output is the product of heart rate and stroke volume (volume ejected per beat)
CO = HR x SV

52
Q

what affect does the sympathetic nervous system have on heart rate?

A

releases noradrenaline to increase the action potentials in the SA node, increasing the heart rate

53
Q

what affect does the parasympathetic system have on the heart rate?

A

vagal nerve releases acetylcholine to decrease the rate of action potentials in the SA node and slow the heart rate

54
Q

what affect does the sympathetic nervous system have on stroke volume?

A

Releases noradrenaline to increase contractile strength in the ventricles by introducing additional calcium.

55
Q

what affect does the parasympathetic nervous system have on stroke volume?

A

Virtually no impact on stroke volume, because the ventricular muscle fibres are not strongly innervated by the vagal nerve.

56
Q

affect of sympathetic nervous system on cardiac output?

A

increases it

57
Q

affect of parasympathetic nervous system on cardiac output?

A

decreases it

58
Q

what happens when venous return for the heart increases? will the heart pump more blood than usual, or will the end-systolic volume increase as well?

A

the heart pumps as much blood as it receives (more than usual, in this instance) and end-systolic volume remains constant (prevents blood from pooling in heart chambers/pulmonary circulation etc)

59
Q

How does a change in blood vessel diameter affect blood flow to an organ?

A

when vessels dilate/widen, resistance to blood flow decreases and flow increases (and vice versa)

60
Q

how does the structure of capillaries reflect their function?

A

their extremely thin walls are necessary for the exchange of substances between blood and tissues, and their diameter ensures blood flow is slow (which maximises exchange time)

61
Q

which blood constituent is the major determinant of blood osmotic pressure - plasma, proteins, red blood cells?

A

proteins, especially albumin, are the main cause of blood osmotic pressure

62
Q

What happens if baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure? Describe the steps in the feedback loop.

A

baroreceptors increase their rate of firing, sending signals to the cardiovascular centre of the brainstem (here the info is integrated and an autonomic response formulated). in this case, sympathetic stimulation to the heart will be decreased and parasympathetic stimulation increased, therefore lowering the heart rate and contractility, which decreases cardiac output (CO = HR x SV) and subsequently lower the blood pressure

63
Q

what is mean arterial pressure?

A

the average blood pressure in the arteries, which is usually closer to diastolic than systolic pressure

64
Q

what is pulse pressure?

A

the difference between diastolic and systolic pressure

65
Q

what is diastolic pressure?

A

the lowest pressure in the arteries

66
Q

what is systolic pressure?

A

the peak pressure in the aorta and large arteries

67
Q

what does syncope mean?

A

fainting (sudden and temporary loss of consciousness). can be related to the brain not getting enough blood/oxygen (cardiac system)

68
Q

what do the heart and pulse rates measure?

A

the number of times the heart beats per minute (bpm)

69
Q

Should the pulse and heart rates be the same?

A

yes, or very close

70
Q

what is a pulse?

A

the stretch of an artery to accomodate the wave of blood generated when it’s pumped from the left ventricle of the heart into the aorta

71
Q

what determines the strength of a pulse?

A

determined by the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure - the greater the difference, the stronger the pulse

72
Q

Revision: What is a mucous membrane?

A

a mucous membrane or mucosa is an epithelial membrane that lines the body cavities that are open to the environment - eg gastrointestinal tract, airways and urogenital tracts

73
Q

S3 and S4 are not typically heard in small animals, but may be heard in horses: when does S3 occur?

A

just after S2 as blood flows from the atria into the relaxed ventricles

73
Q

how are heart sounds created?

A

turbulent blood flow and reverberation of the heart wall - this typically occurs when the heart valves close

74
Q

S3 and S4 are not typically heard in small animals, but may be heard in horses: when does S4 occur?

A

with arterial contraction, just prior to S1 (the lub of AV valves closing)

75
Q

the official name for the left atrioventricular valve?

A

the mitral valve

76
Q

what is the apex beat?

A

The apex beat is the impact vibration produced at the start of ventricular contraction as the heart hits the thoracic wall

77
Q

the apex beat is the approximate location of which valve?

A

left atrioventricular (mitral)

78
Q

which valves are auscultated on the left hand side?

A

PAM - pulmonic, aortic, mitral

79
Q

An owner complains that their dog is no longer interested in exercise and “just wants to lie around all day”. Why would you consider the cardiovascular system as a possible source of the problem?

A

decreased interest in exercise may be indicative of exercise intolerance, which may in turn result from compromised cardiovascular function - such as due to reduced cardiac output

80
Q

What is the value of palpating a pulse in a physical examination of an animal?

A
  • info about the regularity or rhythm of the heartbeat
  • direct feedback on the perfusion of blood to that region
81
Q

What is meant by a “thready” pulse?

A

a pulse that feels weak and thin

82
Q

what does packed cell volume (PCV) tell us?

A

what proportion of blood volume is occupied by red blood cells

83
Q

what does total solids (TS) tell us?

A

the concentration of proteins in the blood (measured in grams per decilitre (g/dL)

84
Q

how is an ECG (electrocardiograph) recorded?

A

an electrocardiograph is a voltmeter that records the changing electrical activity in the heart (via positive and negative electrodes)

85
Q

How does electrical activity travel through the heart? Describe the pathway

A

electrical impulses originate in the SA node, to the AV node, travels down the bundle of His to the left and right branches, then to the purkinje fibres

86
Q

where is the sinoatrial (SA) node found?

A

the right atrium

87
Q

a wave of depolarisation is spreading through the sinoatrial (SA) node through the atria. contraction follows depolarisation, so atrial systole begins roughly at the peak of this wave…. what is it?

A

the P wave

88
Q

atrial systole begins roughly at the peak of P wave and ends at about….

A

the Q wave (of the QRS complex)

89
Q

the first part of the ventricles to depolarise is the interventricular septum… which wave does this create?

A

the Q wave (part of the QRS complex)

90
Q

the bulk of the ventricular myocardium is depolarised, creating a large ______ wave. ventricular systole begins here, which wave is it?

A

the R wave (the big boi, peak of the QRS complex)

91
Q

the remaining parts of the ventricle are depolarised, creating which wave?

A

the S wave (last of the QRS complex)

92
Q

following depolarisation and contraction, the ventricles repolarise in time for the next stimulus. this creates a potential difference across the ventricles which is recorded as what wave?

A

the T wave

93
Q

what is recorded on the horizontal axis of an electrocardiograph (ETC)?

A

time (s)

94
Q

what is recorded on the vertical axis of an electrocardiograph (ETC)?

A

the amplitude of the heart’s electrical current (measured in mV/millivolts)

95
Q

ECGs can be used to analyse heart rhythms.

A normal P-QRS-T complex is termed a sinus complex (because it originates in the sinoatrial node). A sequence of beats originating from the SA node will form a….

A

sinus rhythm

96
Q

rhythm you expect to see in most healthy animals. The stimulus originates from the SA node regularly at a constant rate, depolarising the atria and ventricles and producing a coordinated atrioventricular contraction. what’s this called?

A

a normal sinus rhythm

97
Q

The SA node generates an impulse and depolarisation at a rate that is faster than normal. what’s this called?

A

sinus tachycardia

98
Q

The SA node generates an impulse and depolarisation at a rate slower than normal. This can be a normal feature in some giant-breed dogs and in athletically fit animals. what’s this called?

A

sinus bradycardia (think brad the gym bro)

99
Q

The stimulus originates from the SA node, but the rate varies (increases and decreases) regularly. This is a normal and common rhythm in dogs. It is associated with increased parasympathetic activity on the SA node. what’s this called?

A

sinus arrythmia - commonly, the regular variation in rate is associated with respiration and therefore is often termed respiratory sinus arrhythmia.

100
Q

what does arrhythmia mean?

A

an irregular heart beat

101
Q

Why is a negative electrode placed cranial to the heart and a positive electrode placed caudal to the heart when recording an electrocardiogram (ECG)?

A

this configuration aligns with the general direction of the spread of electrical activity during depolarisation (contraction of the heart)

102
Q

In the context of electrocardiography, what is a lead?

A

a specific combination of electrodes that measures electrical activity from a particular angle or direction

103
Q

What information could a vet get about the function of the cardiovascular system from a radiograph?

A

not much, but can see an enlarged heart chamber or the diameter of a large blood vessel etc

104
Q

In VD views, the cardiac silhouette may be magnified in large breed dogs compared with the DV view. Why?

A

because the object of interest (heart) is quite a long way off the image detector, which often results in magnification

105
Q

what factors may alter the appearance of the cardiac silhouette on radiographs?

A
  • species/breed difference
  • positioning
106
Q

equation for blood pressure?

A

blood pressure = cardiac output x peripheral resistance

veterinary science 2.1 (22 decks)

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