Unit one Flashcards
what is cytology
study of cells and their components
what are inclusions
parts of cells that change over time
cells are what
functional unit of life
whats an example of inclusion
granules
are organelles changing or permanent
permanent
function of epithelium
protection of structure
function of muscle
movement
function of nervous system
control
function of connective tissue
support and transport
what is histology
study of tissues
what are the 4 types of tissues
epithelium, muscular, nervous and connective
what is organology
study of organs
what are the steps in tissue preparation
fixation, dehydration, clearing, infiltration, embedding, sectioning, mounting, removal of paraffin or plastic, and staining
what happens during the step of fixation
preserves the structural organization, prevents digestion and protects from damage during subsequent stages
what agent is used during fixation
formalin
what happens during the stage of dehydration
removes the water, which eases the penetration of the tissue by clearing agents
what agent is used during dehydration
ethanol
can you place 100% ethanol into sample
no have to dilute from 70% then to 100%
what happens during the stage of clearing
prepares the tissue for infiltration by replacing water molecule with xylene
what happens during the stage of infilitration
prepares the cleared tissue for embedding by adding paraffin
what does paraffin do to tissue
replaces xylene and helps support of tissue
what happens during the stage of embedding
makes the tissue firm and prevents crushing during sectioning to allow for better manipulation of tissue, makes tissue sample bigger
what happens during the stage of sectioning
thin sections allows light or electrons to penetrate the specimen and form an image, use microtome to cut sample into thin cuts
what happens during the stage of mounting
eases handling and decreases the damage to the specimen during examination
what happens during the stage of removal of paraffin or plastic
most stains are water soluble and therefore need to put water back into tissue
what happens during the stage of staining
makes the specimen visible with stain, allows contrast between structures
what is the most common stain used
H and E, hematoxylin and eosin
basic dyes stain what
stains basophilic parts of cell
example of basophilic parts of cell
DNA, RNA, ribosomes
basic dyes mainly dye what organelle and what color
nuclei, blue and purple
acidic dyes stain what
stains acidophilic tissue parts
example of acidophilic parts of cell
mitochondria, secretory granules, collagen
acidic dyes mainly dye what organelle and what color
cytoplasm and red and pink
how does acidophilic dye work
looks for basic molecules to bind to and will attach to it
how do you make H and E staining
mix acidic and basic dye
lipid soluble dyes stain what
stains long chain hydrocarbons, fats and oils
what is special about lipid soluble dyes
can quantify based on cells surrounding each other, amount of dye in that cell determines how much lipid
multicomponent histochemical reactions stain what
stains complex carbohydrates and glycogen
what is the reaction of the multicomponent histochemical reaction stain
true chemical reaction occurs between the dye and the sugar molecule
what color is the multicomponent histochemical reaction
purple, more purple means more carb
what stain is a specialty stain
multicomponent histochemical reaction stain
heavy metal stains what
stains phospholipids and complex sugars
what component in heavy metal staining is most common
lead
what is resolution
the smallest distance that two objects can be seen as two objects
if you increase magnification what happens to resolution
decreases
if wavelength of light increases what happens to resolution
increases
what is the equation for resolution
.61 lambda/ (NAobj + NAcondensor)
what does NA mean
numerical aperature
how to determine NA
sin 1/2 theta light picked up by the lens x (refractive index of the medium)
if refractive index decreases what happens to NA
decreases
if refractive index decreases what happens to resolution
increases
if NA decreases what happens to resolution
increases
one angstrom is how many meters
10^-10 m
what is magnification
how large the image appears
how to determine magnification
objective lens magnification x ocular lens magnification
what is the plasma membrane
a barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm and marks the boundary of the cell
what are the three basic concepts about the plasma membrane
they are not homogenous, many membrane components are in a state of constant dynamic flux, membrane components are highly asymmetrical
plasma membrane has what appearance under the microscope
trilaminar
what components make up the plasma membrane
lipids and proteins
what is the percentage of lipids in the plasma membrane
40 to 80%
of the lipid present in the plasma membrane, how much is phopholipid
50%
what makes up a phospholipid
polar head and nonpolar tail
what makes up the polar head of a phospholipid
glycerol, phosphate, and nitrogen base
what makes up the nonpolar tail of a phospholipid
long chain fatty acids with saturated and unsaturated
what part of the phospholipid picks up the stain
the head
what type of staining pattern is created in a phospholipid bilayer
dark light pattern
what molecule helps stiffen the plasma membrane
cholesterol
fluid mosaic model contains
phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, integral proteins, peripheral proteins
integral proteins are located where in the membrane
goes across the membrane, spanning both sides
purpose of integral proteins
form channels, pumps to move things in and out
cholesterol is mostly associated where in the plasma membrane
the tails
where are the peripheral membranes located
on the sides of the membrane but not inbewteen
how are peripheral proteins held in place on the membrane
nonpolar amino acids
purpose of peripheral membranes
used as receptors
what is exocytosis
move material outside of cell by using membrane bound vesicle fusing with cell membrane, then opens out and material leaves cell
what is endocytosis
bringing things into cell
what are the different types of endocytosis
pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis
what is pinocytosis
fluid into the cell
what is receptor mediated endocytosis
use of protein receptors to bring material into cell
what is phagocytosis
bring solids into the cell
what does a mitochondria look like
round or oval, .5-1 um wide and up to 10 um long
function of mitochondria
transform chemical energy into ATP
mitochondria are made up of
outer membrane, inner membrane, elementary particles, granules, circular DNA
describe outer membrane of mitochondria
contains porin protein which forms channels allowing material to enter in
describe inner membrane of mitochondria
made up of 75% proteins that are enzymes, contain cristae
what are cristae and their function
folds inside mitochondria, help increase surface area for more proteins and enzymes
what are the elementary particles in mitochondria
enzymes that form ATP and are attached to the inner membrane
what are the granules of the mitochondria and purpose
Ca, DNA, RNA, Mg and are co-enzymes
are mitochondria able to control their own cellular functions why
yes, contain their own DNA and are not controlled by the cell’s nucleus
mitochondria theory with DNA
through endocytosis, bacteria enters into mitochondria with circular DNA and mitochondria now contains double membrane structure that has circular DNA and can make ATP
what are the functions of ER
site of lipid and carb synthesis, protein segregation from the cytoplasm, initial post-translational changes
what is the percentage of the membranes in the cell that are the ER
50%
what is rough ER used for
protein synthesis
what are the purpose of tunnels of the ER
moves proteins/molecules to new areas more effectively
where are the ribosomes attached on the rough ER
on the surface
what is the purpose of the ribosomes in the RER
make the protein and then enters in RER for distribution
where is RER located in cell
either by itself or attached to nucleus
ribosomal free area in the RER is known as what and used for what
transitional zone for vesicle formation
where is smooth ER found
steroid producing cells
Purpose of smooth ER
breaks down glycogen, mostly found in liver
Smooth ER associated with
p450 enzyme detoxification system which is a major enzyme for detoxification with blood
the function of the golgi apparatus/ complex
to complete post-translational modification and packaging of the products of the cells (proteins primarily)
how many compartments are in a golgi
mostly 5
vesicles from the ER go to where in the golgi
cis face (forming face) and fuse into the first compartment
what happens in each compartment of the golgi
enzymes the convert one protein into another
how do proteins in the golgi move from one vesicle to another
by vesicles
what is the last compartment in the golgi that takes the last protein out in a vesicle
trans face (maturing face)
is the golgi non polarized or polarized
polarized
what occurs in a lysosome
intracellular digestion that occur in the cytoplasm
structure of lysosome
membrane vesicles with hydrolytic enzymes
lysosomes are formed from where
RER and golgi complex
primary lysosomes are what
storage vesicles for digestive enzymes, enzymes are not yet doing anything
secondary lysosomes are what
where the process of digestion occurs, they are active
what are residual bodies
lysosomes that contain indigestible material storage, lipofuscin granules
how do residual bodies expel their contents to the environment
exocytosis
what happens if residual bodies do not go through exocytosis
build up in cell, causing aging of the cell
what is an autophagosome
when an organelle is no longer working, the organelle will be wrapped by ER, solid material in cell already
how do lysosomes works
two vesicles will fuse creating a structure with two membranes, lysosome has enzymes and is now active, whatever is left over will create a residual body
peroxisomes are also known as
microbodies
what enzymes are in peroxisomes
D and L oxidase and hydroxacid oxidase
function of peroxisomes
reducing oxygen and H2O2
what are the byproducts from peroxisomes
H20 and O2
what are ribosomes composed of
mRNA and 80 different proteins
what are the ribosomes for prokaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts
70s
what are the ribosomes found in eukaryotes
80s
what creates ribosomes
nucleolus
are ribosomes acidophilic or basophilic
basophilic
what is the function of ribosomes
protein synthesis
are ribosomes single structures are paired up with another organelle
both, single or attache to RER
function of 60s ribosome
catalase enzyme is located for peptide bond formation
function of 40s ribosome
binds mRNA
microtubules are composed of
alpha and beta tubulin proteins
tubulin look like
straws
microtubules are made from
MTOC, microtubular organizing centers
where are MTOC’s found
basal bodies, centrioles, and centromeres
function of microtubules are based on
number of alpha and beta tubulin proteins
how many subunits per microtubule
13
centrioles are composed of
microtubule arranged in 9 pairs of triplets
how are the triplets in centrioles held together
protein links
the mirotubules in the centrioles share how many subunits
three
centrioles are duplicated during what phase in mitosis
S phase of interphase
function of centrioles
they are MTOC’s so they make more microtubules
cilia and flagella are made up of
9 pairs of doublets around a central tubule containing two singlets
9+2 is known as
axoneme
what is the point of two singlets in cilia or flagella
add rigidity, central core of support
function of cilia or flagella
movement
the arms from a tubule in cilia and flagella are known as
dynein
function of dynein arms
have ATPase associated with them, break down ATP
the adjacent doublets in cilia and flagella are joined together by
nexins
microfilaments are made up of
actin, G-actin (globular)
where are microfilaments found
thin sheath beneath the cell membrane, near organelles
a string of G actin is known as
F actin (filamentous)
why are two strands of F actin spiraled around each other
add strength
function of microfilaments
form the cleavage furrow during mitosis
the nucleus has how many membranes
2, inner and outer
function of nucleus
control of the processes of the cell
the internal aspect of the membranes of the nucleus contains protein fibers known as
fibrous lamina
nuclear pores are made of
a, b, and c lamins
structure of nuclear pores
composed of 8 subunits called annular proteins covered by thin protein diaphragm
what attaches to the outer membrane of the nucleus
polysomes
what is the nucleolus rich in
rRNA and proteins
what are the three regions of the nucleolus
pars fibrosa, pars granulosa and nuclear organizing DNA
function of the pars fibrosa
ribosomes are made
location of the pars fibrosa
outside of nucleolus
function of pars granulosa
ribosomes are stored here
location of the pars granulosa
inside of nucleolus
function of nucleolar organizing DNA
codes for RNA
location of nucleolar organizing DNA
inside fibrosa
what are heterochromatin
nonfunctional chromatin
what staining are heterochromatin
dark staining
what are euchromatin
functional chromatin
what staining are heterochromatin
light staining
chromatin are wrapped around what protein
histones
nucleosomes are what
chromatin wrapped around histones
nucleosomes are held together by what
H1
how many nucleosomes form a solenoid
six
solenoids are folded into
loops
the loops of solenoids are folded around
scaffolding proteins
the loops of solenoids then form
chromosomes
what are the three phases of interphase
G1, S and G2
what occurs during G1
doing whatever a cell is suppose to do
G1 haploid or diploid
diploid
what occurs during S phase
chromatin material doubles
1n, 2n or 4n at end of s phase
4n
what occurs during G2
cell continues to grow, saving up ATP
1n, 2n, or 4n during G2
4n
at the end of G2, the cell can do what
undergo mitosis or go to G0 which is the holding stage (no dividing)
purpose of mitosis
start with parent cell and create two identical daughter cells
interphase, 1n, 2n or 4n
4n
what occurs during interphase
nucleus with prominent and well developed nuclear membrane, centrioles duplicate, chromatin material present
what occurs during prophase
chromatin material condense, nuclear membrane disappears, centrioles make microtubules (spindle fibers)
prophase, 1n, 2n, or 4n
4n
what occurs during metaphase
chromatin line up on equitorial plate, spindle fibers attach to centromeres
centromeres can also make what
spindle fibers
centromeres are
MTOC’s
metaphase 1n, 2n, or 4n
4n
what occurs during anaphase
chromatin material will separate, chromatin move toward centrioles
what occurs during telophase
nucleus cytokinesis, chromatin relaxing and harder to see, nuclear membrane reappears
telophase is 1n, 2n or 4n
2n
what is cytokinesis
cell pinch together and pull apart forming two new cells, with half of organelles going to one cell and other half go to other
pinching during cytokinesis occurs due to
microfilaments such as actin
what are the three aspects when looking at slide of epithelium
number of layers, shape of cells, and specilizations
simple epithelium
one layer
stratified epithelium
more than one layer
squamous
flat
cuboidal
square
columnar
tall
when counting layers what is the reference point
basal lamina/ membrane
function of basal lamina
anchors the epithelium
what is the pattern of basal lamina
light, dark, light
the light area of the basal lamina is called what
lamina lucida
lamina lucida is made up of what protein
laminin
the dark layer of the basal lamina is called
lamina densa
the lamina densa is made up of
protein and proteoglycan
the basal lamina forms what type of barrier
ionic
what charge is allow to pass the basal lamina
negative charges
a basement membrane contains how many basal lamina
2
what do the nuclei look like in a simple squamous cell
elongated in shape along the horizontal line
where in body do you see a simple squamous cell
blood vessels and lungs
simple squamous cell is used for
move things across, diffusion
what does the nucleus look like in simple cuboidal
round and in center of cell
where do you see in body simple cuboidal
hormone producers, thyroid gland, and kidney ducts
what specialization is with simple columnar
ciliated or not
purpose of simple columnar
absorb material
where to find non ciliated simple columnar
GI tract
where to find ciliated simple columnar
female reproductive tract
what is the reference point of shape of cell
look at lumen
what specialization goes towards stratified squamous
keratin
feature of keratinizied stratified squamous
no nucleus in cells by lumen
where would you find keratinized stratified squamous
skin
function of keratinized stratified squamous
protection, waterproof, helps protect from dehydration, shearing forces, UV radiation
where is non keratinized stratified squamous
esophagus
function of non keratinized stratified squamous
protection
where is stratified cuboidal found in the body
ducts of glands such as sweat and salivary glands
how many layers does stratified cuboidal have
only two
function of cuboidal stratified
protection
What is the rarest type of epithelium in the body
Stratified columnar
Where do you see stratified columnar
Male reproductive system such as ductus deferens and seminal vesicle
What is the specialization of stratified columnar
Ciliated or not
Where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Upper respiratory system such as trachea and bronchi
What does the structure of pseudostratified columnar
Every cell is going to touch the basement membrane
What specialization does pseudostratified columnar has
Cilia
What type of cell can you cell in pseudostratified columnar
Goblet cells
Where would you find transitional epithelium
Urinary bladder
Purpose of transitional epithelium
Need to stretch without breaking their integrity
What is a characteristic of transitional epithelium
Scalloped at the edges
What are the four types of intercellular junctions
Tight junctions, zonula adherens, gap junctions, and desmosomes
What proteins are always in between epithelium cells
Glycoproteins
Purpose of glycoproteins for epithelial cells
They are sticky and hold the cells together
What is a tight junction
When two epithelial cell membranes fuse together at various points
Tight junctions prevent what
Material to pass between the cells
How does material go through with tight junctions present
Fusion through the cell
What is zonula adherens
Proteins coming out of cells like fingers and the proteins from one cell interact with a protein from another and fuse together
What is the advantage of zonula adherens
Allow material to go in between the cells
Purpose of gap cell
Move material from one epithelial cell to another through a tunnel when the cells are lined up, this also holds the cells together
What is the protein in the gap junction
The tunnel is the protein
What are desmosomes
Proteins that stick out of membrane providing more surface area for better interaction and stronger adhesion
How does material move through cells with desmosomes
In between the proteins and the cells
Hemidesmosomes attach where
Basement membrane
Basement membrane is made up of
Proteins
How do hemidesmosomes work
Protein paddles from desmosome interacts with protein in basement membrane
The proteins from hemidesmosomes work like
Nails and hook the cells to the basement membrane
Hemidesmosomes make up the first layer but what type of adhesion can the cell layer next use
Any of them
What determines the adherence needed of the cell
Function of the cell
What are glandular epithelium
Modified epithelium that secrete
What is the system to identify glandular epithelium
How many modified cells, where to the secretions go, mechanism by which the cellular product leaves the cell
How many modified glandular cells can be present
Unicellular or multicellular
What are the two forms where secretions can go
Exocrine and endocrine
What are exocrine glands
Empty into the lumen someplace in the body such as the stomach or trachea
What are endocrine glands
Empty into the bloodstream and allow for movement throughout the body
What are three mechanisms of glandular epithelium cells
Merocrine, holocrine, apocrine
What is a merocrine
Granules approach surface and exocytosis their product
What is an apocrine
Fragment the cell and everything above the fragment will shed including the organelles within the top fragment
What is a holocrine
Throw the whole cell out in the lumen
What is the most harsh mechanism of glandular epithelial cells
Holocrine due to having to regenerate the cell
What is the most efficient mechanism of the glandular epithelial cell
Merocrine
What are the two types of glandular patterns
Single vs multiple openings
Structure of the microvilli
Extensions of the cell membrane containing cytoplasma and organelles, very short and numerous
Purpose of microvilli
Increase surface area for better absorption
Where to see microvilli
Intestine
Purpose of cilia
Movement of things
Where are cilia found
Respiratory system
What make up cilia
Microtubules, 9 + 2,
MTOC
