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biology 30 > Unit A - mitosis/meiosis > Flashcards

Unit A - mitosis/meiosis Flashcards

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1
Q

the cell cycle

A

process of cell growth leading up to division

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2
Q

interphase

A

state imbetween cell division, not actively dividing

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3
Q

mitosis

A

cell division through the nucleaus
-duplication/seperation of chromosomes
-duplication of nuclei

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4
Q

smaller sections of interphase

A

Gzero, S phase, G2, mitosis

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5
Q

Gzero

A

cell growth
-nutrient sufficent?
-chromatin

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6
Q

S phase

A

replication of genetic material (DNA)
-chromatin/chromosomes

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7
Q

s phase stands for

A

synthesis phase

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8
Q

G2

A

last minute checks, more growth

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9
Q

phases of mitosis

A

prophase (first formal step), metaphase, anaphase, telaphase

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10
Q

prophase

A

-nucleaus condenses
-last half an hour to an hour
-nuclear envelope begins to disappear
-centrioles move to opposite sides of nucleaus
-astral rays form spindal fibers
“preparation for mitosis”

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11
Q

metaphase

A

-spindle fibers stretch out throughout cell
-line up at metaphase plate
-best time for karyotyping

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12
Q

anaphase

A

chromisomes pull apart
-spindle fibers pull apart sister chromatids at centromere

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13
Q

telophase

A

end of mitosis, starts to physically seperate the cells

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14
Q

cytokinesis

A

creation of a new cell, spliting of cytoplasm
-organelles are all present, and in seperate spots
-seperation forms in the center, sinching/pinching
-produces two daughter cells

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15
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

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16
Q

apoptosis in toes/fingers

A

when humans are being formed, the skin cells between their toes and fingers have to go through apoptosis

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17
Q

sexual reproduction (cellular level)

A

combination of haploid cells into diploid cell
n+n = 2n

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18
Q

asexual reproducyion (cellular level)

A

an exact copy of a cell, to create two identical ‘daughter cells’

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19
Q

daughter cell

A

cells that are the result of a single dividing cell

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20
Q

asexual reproduction is

A

mitosis

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21
Q

sexual reproduction is

A

meiosis

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22
Q

diploid

A

two complete sets of chromosomes
-after fertilization

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23
Q

haploid

A

single set of chromsomes in an organism
example - egg cells and sperm cells
half of cells (chromosomes)

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24
Q

examples of mitosis reproduction

A

-bacteria (binary fusion)
-yeast
-spores

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25
Q

importance of sexual reproduction

A

creates variation (evolutionary advantages)

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26
Q

purpose of cell division

A

-growth of an organism
-tissue repair/replacement
-reproduction

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27
Q

chromatin

A

long linear strands of DNA and proteins, de-condensed form of DNA

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28
Q

chromosomes

A

DNA and associated protiens, densed into thick rods
-more efficent division and transport

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29
Q

histones

A

protiens on spools of DNA
-sites for DNA to wrap around, easier to transport
-what makes a chromatin, a chromosome

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30
Q

super coiling

A

wraping around histones to create rod shapes

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31
Q

centromere

A

point in the middle of an x chromosome
-attachment point for other proteins during cell division
-spindle fibers grab onto

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32
Q

nucleaur envelope

A

protection for the DNA inside the nucleaus

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33
Q

G1 leads to

A

-continuing cell cycle, so s phase
-enter Gzero (can be permanent or reversible)

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34
Q

example of permanent Gzero

A

neurons (most)

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35
Q

reversible quiescence

A

-upon certain stimulance, cells can re-enter the cycle
example : immune cells

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36
Q

late interphase

A

-DNA/organelle replication has occured, chromosome form
-centrioles divided, begining to move apart

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37
Q

centrioles

A

found perpendicular
-important proteins in the cell

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38
Q

astral rays

A

help to move around centrioles and form spindal fibers (microtubules)

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39
Q

microtubules

A

major part of cytoskeleton, help maintain shape of cell

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40
Q

spindal fibers purpose in mitosis

A

grab onto chromosomes to pull them apart

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41
Q

kinetochore region

A

where the spindle fibers grab onto chromosomes

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42
Q

chromatids

A

when chromosomes are split, single chromosome

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43
Q

metaphase plate

A

cells equator, where the spindle fibers pull apart for even splitting

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44
Q

karyotyping

A

pairing and ordering all chromosomes in an organism

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45
Q

centromere

A

center of the chromosome

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46
Q

sister chromatid

A

chromosome in pair format

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47
Q

nondisjunction

A

if sister chromatids don’t seperate

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48
Q

telophase (early)

A

-fibers are pulling, the cell begins to stretch
-cell takes on football shape
-where center fiber meets, they push against fibers to continually pull cell apart

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49
Q

telophase (late)

A

-two seperate ‘packages’ have formed
-nucleaus (two on either side) begins to reform
-spindle fibers disappear
-chromosomes unwind into chromatin

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50
Q

cleavage furow

A

-middle portion of cell in cytokinisis (where it splits)
microfilaments form contachie ring, which pinches cells into two halfs

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51
Q

difference between plant cell and animal cell

A

plant cells have cell wall AND cell membrane
-cell organelles near cleavage furrow harden to produce cell walls for daughter cells

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52
Q

golgi purpsoe in the plant cell

A

brings polysaccharides for cell wall growth

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53
Q

cloning

A

taking an organisms information putting it into a surrogates organism, then developing the surrogate into a clone

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54
Q

DNA lives in the

A

nucleaus

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55
Q

somatic

A

body cell

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56
Q

egg cell donor steps

A

remove the egg cell, take only the empty cell (get rid of the nucleaus) fuse cell

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57
Q

nucleus donor

A

take certain cell, remove nucleaus to be infused with empty egg cell

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58
Q

biological definition of clones

A

identical DNA information

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59
Q

what organism is the clone identical too?

A

donated nucleaus organism
NOT the surrogate organism

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60
Q

how long can cells live

A

120 days to 30 years

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61
Q

at what age is there no cells left to divide in a human

A

115

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62
Q

once cells specialize/differenciate what happens..

A

thier ability to divide is reduced

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63
Q

what cells ignore the aging rule

A

spermatocytes and cancer cells

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64
Q

telomeres

A

‘caps’ on the end of DNA
-space for the end of DNA to fill
-vitalroleinprotectingthedna

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65
Q

what phase does chromatin exist

A

interphase and late telophase

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66
Q

what phase does chromosome first exist

A

prophase

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67
Q

when does DNA duplicate itself

A

interphase

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68
Q

chromatid vs chromatin

A

chromatid - one side of a identical pair of chromosome
chromatin - unbound spool of DNA that will eventually wind into a chromosome

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69
Q

three main purposes of mitotic cell division

A

growth, repair, asexual reproduction

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70
Q

what is in the cell during interphase

A

nucleus, chromatin (duplicated), centrosomes (with pair of centrioles)

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71
Q

what is in the cell during prophase

A

early mitotic spindle, aster, chromosome (consisting of two sister chromatids),

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72
Q

what is in the cell during metaphase

A

chromosome, spindle fibers, centrioles. metaphase plate

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73
Q

what is in the cell during anaphase

A

centrioles, spindle fibers, sister chromasomes in chromatid form

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74
Q

cancer

A

uncontrolled cell division and growth

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75
Q

tumor

A

mass of cells that continues dividing

76
Q

what makes a cell a cancer cell

A

contains unfixable DNA damage (mutations), doesn’t go through apoptosis instead continues dividing

77
Q

cancer cells unlike normal cells can

A

reproduce in isolation

78
Q

cancer cell functions

A

leech nutrients from other cells
-do not carry on bodily functions

79
Q

regulators

A

genes that regulate proteins

80
Q

telomerase

A

restorying telomerse, becoming immortal

81
Q

metastasis

A

cancer cells travel to other parts of the body

82
Q

what is cancer in regards to mitosis

A

cancer is abnormal mitosis caused by mutation

83
Q

treatment to cancer

A

-radiation (overly mutating cancer cells so they can’t be disguised)
-chemotherapy (kill fast growing cells)

84
Q

how many chromosomes are in a human body cell

A

46

85
Q

how many chromosomes in a human sex cell

A

23

86
Q

centromere

A

middle of a chromosome

87
Q

counting chromosomesisreally…

A

counting centromeres

88
Q

when do you duplicate chromosomes

A

interphase
from one chromatid to two chromatid’s (sister chromatids)

89
Q

when do you have 46 chromosomes and 96 chromatids

A

after interphase, beg of prophase

90
Q

mitosis resulting cells

A

identical

91
Q

meiosis resulting cells

A

reduction division

92
Q

gametes

A

reproduction cells
n

93
Q

gametes

A

reproduction cells, haploid
n

94
Q

fertilization

A

fusion of gametes
-creates a diploid cell
n+n=2n

95
Q

zygote

A

body formed by fertilization

96
Q

male gamete

A

sperm from testes

97
Q

female gamete

A

egg from ovaries

98
Q

chromosomes always pair up even if

A

they are visibaly different

99
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

two chromosomes carrying same gene category from two parents
-not attached
-different than sister chromatid

100
Q

where are copies on chromosomes

A

two centromere chromsomes (two sister chromatid’s)

101
Q

where are pairs on chromosomes

A

/ and \

102
Q

homologous pairs

A

diploid organisms carry two versions of each chromosome
-a duplicated chromosome, with the same genes

103
Q

meiosis interphase

A

DNA replication occurs
-chromatin condenses into chromatid
- 46 pairs of chromosomes (96 chromatids)

104
Q

tetrad

A

set of homologous pair

105
Q

meiosis prophase 1

A

-nucleur envelope dissolves
-information swaps in chromosomes (creates tetrad)
-centriole moves apart, astar rays

106
Q

synapsis

A

exchance of genetic material, from same ‘categories’
-creates variation
-genes are not lost

107
Q

crossing over

A

-chromosomes after synapsis will have recombined information

108
Q

meiosis purpose

A

required to produce sex cells

109
Q

meiosis metaphase 1

A

-centrioles, spindle fibers lined up
-tetrad lined up at equator
-tetrad pairs attached to spindle fibers

110
Q

meiosis anaphase 1

A

-spindle fibers pull apart tetrad
-segregation
-chromatids DO NOT SEPERATE, move to opposite poles

111
Q

during what part of meiosis does the genetic information swap happen

A

meiosis prophase 1

112
Q

meiosis telophase 1

A

-chromosomes unwind back into chromatin
-nucleur membrane starts to reappear
-cytokinesis may begin, or directly into prophase 2
*2 daughter cells that are non identical created

113
Q

interkinesis

A

resting state between meiosis 1 and 2
-no cells duplicating

114
Q

prophase 2

A

-chromatin recondenses into chromosomes

115
Q

metaphase 2

A

chromosomes align at equator

116
Q

anaphase 2

A

sister chromatids move apart to poles

117
Q

telophase 2

A

cytokinesis happens, nuculeur membrane is reformed
-4 identical haploid daughter cells

118
Q

reduction division

A

result of the whole process is half the orhginal chromsomes number

119
Q

what stage of meiosis does crossing over happen

A

prophase 1

120
Q

gametogenesis

A

generation of gametes (eg egg, sperm)

121
Q

spermatogenesis

A

-production of male sex cells
-all sperm cells (4) receive equal amounts of cytoplasm

122
Q

spermatogonium

A

early stage cell of sperm, prior to mitosis

123
Q

autosome

A

every chromosome that is not a chromosome

124
Q

x and y chromosome

A

sex chromosome

125
Q

x chromosome

A

female

126
Q

y chromosome

A

male

127
Q

primary spermatocyte

A

spermatogonium growth, and maturity

128
Q

secondary spermatocyte

A

primary spermatocyte has gone through meiosis 1
-haploid

129
Q

when does spermatocyte become haploid

A

after meiosis 1

130
Q

spermatids

A

undergone meiosis 2
-four unique haploids

131
Q

how many spermatids are created after meiosis 2

A

four

132
Q

maturation

A

spermatids are maturing/have matured into sperm cells

133
Q

male spermatogenesis cycle

A
  1. spermatogonium grows
    2.spermatogonium undergoes mitosis to create two diploid primary spermatocytes
  2. undergoes meisosis 1 to turn into secondary spermatocytes
  3. undergoes meiosis 2 into spermatids which mature until ejaculated as sperm
134
Q

spermatogenesis production site

A

happens in the seminiferous tubules, in testes

135
Q

what does meiosis 2 produce

A

four unqiue haploid cells

136
Q

oogenesis production site

A

production of ova occurs in epihelial layer of ovaries

137
Q

oogenesis

A

production of female sex cells
-one cell recieves most cytoplasm

138
Q

polar bodies

A

other cell that doesn’t receive cytoplasm, eventually degenerates

139
Q

oogonium

A

starting place of oogenesis, grows until can undergo mitosis

140
Q

primary oocytes

A

has undergone mitosis
-diploid

141
Q

female cell

A

two x chromosomes

142
Q

male cell

A

x and y chromosome

143
Q

secondary oocyte

A

has undergone meiosis 1,
-created with the first polar body
(n) for both

144
Q

when does meiosis 2 occur in the female cycle

A

if fertilization occurs

145
Q

ovulated secondary oocyte (ovum)

A

has undergone meiosis 2
-creates 2nd polar body and ovum

146
Q

1st polar body

A

may or may not divide a second time
-doesn’t have much of a function

147
Q

another name for ovulated secondary oocyte

A

ovum

148
Q

ovum turns into

A

mature egg

149
Q

female sex cell cycle

A

1.born with primary oocytes
2. primary goes through meiosis 1, creates secondary oocyte
3. after fertilization secondary undergoes meiosis 2 and turns into a fertilized ovum
4. ovum turns into mature egg

150
Q

purpose of oogenesis

A

-variation
-accquring haploid cell (n+n)

151
Q

for the most part of multicellular life you are…

A

diploid

152
Q

alternation of generations

A

referring to plant/algae
switching between asexual (mitosis) and sexual (meiosis) phases

153
Q

purpose of meiosis

A

create haploid cells

154
Q

purpose of fertilization

A

create diploid cells

155
Q

gametes are

A

haploid

156
Q

organisms is dominatly

A

diploid

157
Q

gametes are formed by

A

meiosis

158
Q

zygotes formed by

A

fertilization (diploid)

159
Q

zygote turns into…

A

embyro, fetus, infant, child, adult

160
Q

growth is simply…

A

mitosis

161
Q

gomads

A

ovaries/testies

162
Q

reductional division

A

meiosis going from 2n to n

163
Q

fungi and algae/yeast differences

A

-haploid organism grows, mitosis
-gametes undergo fertilization to produce zygote (2N)
-meiosis turns back into haploid, to germinate

164
Q

mitosis ends in how many pairs (d/h)

A

-ends intwentythreepairs
-diploid

165
Q

meiosis ends in how many pairs (d/h)

A

-ends in 23
-haploid

166
Q

chiasma

A

during synapsis, crossing over, intersection spot

167
Q

crossing over happens during

A

prophase 1

168
Q

recombinant chromatids

A

same type of information
-on different arms/areas
-still homologous

169
Q

n+n=2n

A

fertilizaton

170
Q

difference between fungi cycle and humans

A

humans typically stay as a diploid
-fungi stay as haploid and breifly fertilize then into meiosis right away

171
Q

plants and other algae cycle

A

-alternate between haploid and diploid stages (equal alternation)
sporophyte-meiosis(reduction) to spores-mitosis to gametophyte-mitosis to gametes-fertilization to zygote-mitosis to sporophyte

172
Q

sporophyte

A

diploid stage
-creates spores through meiosis

173
Q

gametophyte

A

haploid stage
produces gametes (n) by mitosis

174
Q

terms assosciated to haploid

A

gamete
gemetophyte
egg (ovum)
sperm
spore

175
Q

terms assosciated to diploid

A

zygote
sporophyte
fertilized egg

176
Q

nondisjunction

A

failure for chromosomes to seperate

177
Q

why is nondisjunction more severe in meiosis

A

-cell is apart of zygotes of new humans, affects all their cells in that said human
(meiosis happens in gamete producing cells)

178
Q

where does nondisjunction happen in meiosis (two things)

A

in meiosis 1 –> homologous chromosomes move to the same pole in anaphase 1

in meiosis 2 —> when chromatids fail to seperate during anaphase 2

179
Q

autosomes

A

one of the numbered chromosomes
(not a sex chromosome)

180
Q

naming of chromosome abnormalility

A

trisomy *number

181
Q

polyploidy

A

having a chromosome number that is a multiple greater than two of the haploid number

182
Q

benefits of polyploidy

A

-increases cell size

183
Q

4n (tetraploid) examples

A

potatoes, coffee, peanuts, macintosh apples

184
Q

6n (hexaploid) examples

A

barley, bread wheat

185
Q

8n (octoploid) examples

A

strawberries

186
Q

induced allopolyploidy

A

convert a sterile cross-species hybrid into a fertile allotetra-ploid

biology 30 (8 decks)

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