Unit A - mitosis/meiosis Flashcards
1
Q
the cell cycle
A
process of cell growth leading up to division
2
Q
interphase
A
state imbetween cell division, not actively dividing
3
Q
mitosis
A
cell division through the nucleaus
-duplication/seperation of chromosomes
-duplication of nuclei
4
Q
smaller sections of interphase
A
Gzero, S phase, G2, mitosis
5
Q
Gzero
A
cell growth
-nutrient sufficent?
-chromatin
6
Q
S phase
A
replication of genetic material (DNA)
-chromatin/chromosomes
7
Q
s phase stands for
A
synthesis phase
8
Q
G2
A
last minute checks, more growth
9
Q
phases of mitosis
A
prophase (first formal step), metaphase, anaphase, telaphase
10
Q
prophase
A
-nucleaus condenses
-last half an hour to an hour
-nuclear envelope begins to disappear
-centrioles move to opposite sides of nucleaus
-astral rays form spindal fibers
“preparation for mitosis”
11
Q
metaphase
A
-spindle fibers stretch out throughout cell
-line up at metaphase plate
-best time for karyotyping
12
Q
anaphase
A
chromisomes pull apart
-spindle fibers pull apart sister chromatids at centromere
13
Q
telophase
A
end of mitosis, starts to physically seperate the cells
14
Q
cytokinesis
A
creation of a new cell, spliting of cytoplasm
-organelles are all present, and in seperate spots
-seperation forms in the center, sinching/pinching
-produces two daughter cells
15
Q
apoptosis
A
programmed cell death
16
Q
apoptosis in toes/fingers
A
when humans are being formed, the skin cells between their toes and fingers have to go through apoptosis
17
Q
sexual reproduction (cellular level)
A
combination of haploid cells into diploid cell
n+n = 2n
18
Q
asexual reproducyion (cellular level)
A
an exact copy of a cell, to create two identical ‘daughter cells’
19
Q
daughter cell
A
cells that are the result of a single dividing cell
20
Q
asexual reproduction is
A
mitosis
21
Q
sexual reproduction is
A
meiosis
22
Q
diploid
A
two complete sets of chromosomes
-after fertilization
23
Q
haploid
A
single set of chromsomes in an organism
example - egg cells and sperm cells
half of cells (chromosomes)
24
Q
examples of mitosis reproduction
A
-bacteria (binary fusion)
-yeast
-spores
25
importance of sexual reproduction
creates variation (evolutionary advantages)
26
purpose of cell division
-growth of an organism
-tissue repair/replacement
-reproduction
27
chromatin
long linear strands of DNA and proteins, de-condensed form of DNA
28
chromosomes
DNA and associated protiens, densed into thick rods
-more efficent division and transport
29
histones
protiens on spools of DNA
-sites for DNA to wrap around, easier to transport
-what makes a chromatin, a chromosome
30
super coiling
wraping around histones to create rod shapes
31
centromere
point in the middle of an x chromosome
-attachment point for other proteins during cell division
-spindle fibers grab onto
32
nucleaur envelope
protection for the DNA inside the nucleaus
33
G1 leads to
-continuing cell cycle, so s phase
-enter Gzero (can be permanent or reversible)
34
example of permanent Gzero
neurons (most)
35
reversible quiescence
-upon certain stimulance, cells can re-enter the cycle
example : immune cells
36
late interphase
-DNA/organelle replication has occured, chromosome form
-centrioles divided, begining to move apart
37
centrioles
found perpendicular
-important proteins in the cell
38
astral rays
help to move around centrioles and form spindal fibers (microtubules)
39
microtubules
major part of cytoskeleton, help maintain shape of cell
40
spindal fibers purpose in mitosis
grab onto chromosomes to pull them apart
41
kinetochore region
where the spindle fibers grab onto chromosomes
42
chromatids
when chromosomes are split, single chromosome
43
metaphase plate
cells equator, where the spindle fibers pull apart for even splitting
44
karyotyping
pairing and ordering all chromosomes in an organism
45
centromere
center of the chromosome
46
sister chromatid
chromosome in pair format
47
nondisjunction
if sister chromatids don't seperate
48
telophase (early)
-fibers are pulling, the cell begins to stretch
-cell takes on football shape
-where center fiber meets, they push against fibers to continually pull cell apart
49
telophase (late)
-two seperate 'packages' have formed
-nucleaus (two on either side) begins to reform
-spindle fibers disappear
-chromosomes unwind into chromatin
50
cleavage furow
-middle portion of cell in cytokinisis (where it splits)
microfilaments form contachie ring, which pinches cells into two halfs
51
difference between plant cell and animal cell
plant cells have cell wall AND cell membrane
-cell organelles near cleavage furrow harden to produce cell walls for daughter cells
52
golgi purpsoe in the plant cell
brings polysaccharides for cell wall growth
53
cloning
taking an organisms information putting it into a surrogates organism, then developing the surrogate into a clone
54
DNA lives in the
nucleaus
55
somatic
body cell
56
egg cell donor steps
remove the egg cell, take only the empty cell (get rid of the nucleaus) fuse cell
57
nucleus donor
take certain cell, remove nucleaus to be infused with empty egg cell
58
biological definition of clones
identical DNA information
59
what organism is the clone identical too?
donated nucleaus organism
NOT the surrogate organism
60
how long can cells live
120 days to 30 years
61
at what age is there no cells left to divide in a human
115
62
once cells specialize/differenciate what happens..
thier ability to divide is reduced
63
what cells ignore the aging rule
spermatocytes and cancer cells
64
telomeres
'caps' on the end of DNA
-space for the end of DNA to fill
-vitalroleinprotectingthedna
65
what phase does chromatin exist
interphase and late telophase
66
what phase does chromosome first exist
prophase
67
when does DNA duplicate itself
interphase
68
chromatid vs chromatin
chromatid - one side of a identical pair of chromosome
chromatin - unbound spool of DNA that will eventually wind into a chromosome
69
three main purposes of mitotic cell division
growth, repair, asexual reproduction
70
what is in the cell during interphase
nucleus, chromatin (duplicated), centrosomes (with pair of centrioles)
71
what is in the cell during prophase
early mitotic spindle, aster, chromosome (consisting of two sister chromatids),
72
what is in the cell during metaphase
chromosome, spindle fibers, centrioles. metaphase plate
73
what is in the cell during anaphase
centrioles, spindle fibers, sister chromasomes in chromatid form
74
cancer
uncontrolled cell division and growth
75
tumor
mass of cells that continues dividing
76
what makes a cell a cancer cell
contains unfixable DNA damage (mutations), doesn't go through apoptosis instead continues dividing
77
cancer cells unlike normal cells can
reproduce in isolation
78
cancer cell functions
leech nutrients from other cells
-do not carry on bodily functions
79
regulators
genes that regulate proteins
80
telomerase
restorying telomerse, becoming immortal
81
metastasis
cancer cells travel to other parts of the body
82
what is cancer in regards to mitosis
cancer is abnormal mitosis caused by mutation
83
treatment to cancer
-radiation (overly mutating cancer cells so they can't be disguised)
-chemotherapy (kill fast growing cells)
84
how many chromosomes are in a human body cell
46
85
how many chromosomes in a human sex cell
23
86
centromere
middle of a chromosome
87
counting chromosomesisreally...
counting centromeres
88
when do you duplicate chromosomes
interphase
from one chromatid to two chromatid's (sister chromatids)
89
when do you have 46 chromosomes and 96 chromatids
after interphase, beg of prophase
90
mitosis resulting cells
identical
91
meiosis resulting cells
reduction division
92
gametes
reproduction cells
n
93
gametes
reproduction cells, haploid
n
94
fertilization
fusion of gametes
-creates a diploid cell
n+n=2n
95
zygote
body formed by fertilization
96
male gamete
sperm from testes
97
female gamete
egg from ovaries
98
chromosomes always pair up even if
they are visibaly different
99
homologous chromosomes
two chromosomes carrying same gene category from two parents
-not attached
-different than sister chromatid
100
where are copies on chromosomes
two centromere chromsomes (two sister chromatid's)
101
where are pairs on chromosomes
/ and \
102
homologous pairs
diploid organisms carry two versions of each chromosome
-a duplicated chromosome, with the same genes
103
meiosis interphase
DNA replication occurs
-chromatin condenses into chromatid
- 46 pairs of chromosomes (96 chromatids)
104
tetrad
set of homologous pair
105
meiosis prophase 1
-nucleur envelope dissolves
-information swaps in chromosomes (creates tetrad)
-centriole moves apart, astar rays
106
synapsis
exchance of genetic material, from same 'categories'
-creates variation
-genes are not lost
107
crossing over
-chromosomes after synapsis will have recombined information
108
meiosis purpose
required to produce sex cells
109
meiosis metaphase 1
-centrioles, spindle fibers lined up
-tetrad lined up at equator
-tetrad pairs attached to spindle fibers
110
meiosis anaphase 1
-spindle fibers pull apart tetrad
-segregation
-chromatids DO NOT SEPERATE, move to opposite poles
111
during what part of meiosis does the genetic information swap happen
meiosis prophase 1
112
meiosis telophase 1
-chromosomes unwind back into chromatin
-nucleur membrane starts to reappear
-cytokinesis may begin, or directly into prophase 2
*2 daughter cells that are non identical created
113
interkinesis
resting state between meiosis 1 and 2
-no cells duplicating
114
prophase 2
-chromatin recondenses into chromosomes
115
metaphase 2
chromosomes align at equator
116
anaphase 2
sister chromatids move apart to poles
117
telophase 2
cytokinesis happens, nuculeur membrane is reformed
-4 identical haploid daughter cells
118
reduction division
result of the whole process is half the orhginal chromsomes number
119
what stage of meiosis does crossing over happen
prophase 1
120
gametogenesis
generation of gametes (eg egg, sperm)
121
spermatogenesis
-production of male sex cells
-all sperm cells (4) receive equal amounts of cytoplasm
122
spermatogonium
early stage cell of sperm, prior to mitosis
123
autosome
every chromosome that is not a chromosome
124
x and y chromosome
sex chromosome
125
x chromosome
female
126
y chromosome
male
127
primary spermatocyte
spermatogonium growth, and maturity
128
secondary spermatocyte
primary spermatocyte has gone through meiosis 1
-haploid
129
when does spermatocyte become haploid
after meiosis 1
130
spermatids
undergone meiosis 2
-four unique haploids
131
how many spermatids are created after meiosis 2
four
132
maturation
spermatids are maturing/have matured into sperm cells
133
male spermatogenesis cycle
1. spermatogonium grows
2.spermatogonium undergoes mitosis to create two diploid primary spermatocytes
3. undergoes meisosis 1 to turn into secondary spermatocytes
4. undergoes meiosis 2 into spermatids which mature until ejaculated as sperm
134
spermatogenesis production site
happens in the seminiferous tubules, in testes
135
what does meiosis 2 produce
four unqiue haploid cells
136
oogenesis production site
production of ova occurs in epihelial layer of ovaries
137
oogenesis
production of female sex cells
-one cell recieves most cytoplasm
138
polar bodies
other cell that doesn't receive cytoplasm, eventually degenerates
139
oogonium
starting place of oogenesis, grows until can undergo mitosis
140
primary oocytes
has undergone mitosis
-diploid
141
female cell
two x chromosomes
142
male cell
x and y chromosome
143
secondary oocyte
has undergone meiosis 1,
-created with the first polar body
(n) for both
144
when does meiosis 2 occur in the female cycle
if fertilization occurs
145
ovulated secondary oocyte (ovum)
has undergone meiosis 2
-creates 2nd polar body and ovum
146
1st polar body
may or may not divide a second time
-doesn't have much of a function
147
another name for ovulated secondary oocyte
ovum
148
ovum turns into
mature egg
149
female sex cell cycle
1.born with primary oocytes
2. primary goes through meiosis 1, creates secondary oocyte
3. after fertilization secondary undergoes meiosis 2 and turns into a fertilized ovum
4. ovum turns into mature egg
150
purpose of oogenesis
-variation
-accquring haploid cell (n+n)
151
for the most part of multicellular life you are...
diploid
152
alternation of generations
referring to plant/algae
switching between asexual (mitosis) and sexual (meiosis) phases
153
purpose of meiosis
create haploid cells
154
purpose of fertilization
create diploid cells
155
gametes are
haploid
156
organisms is dominatly
diploid
157
gametes are formed by
meiosis
158
zygotes formed by
fertilization (diploid)
159
zygote turns into...
embyro, fetus, infant, child, adult
160
growth is simply...
mitosis
161
gomads
ovaries/testies
162
reductional division
meiosis going from 2n to n
163
fungi and algae/yeast differences
-haploid organism grows, mitosis
-gametes undergo fertilization to produce zygote (2N)
-meiosis turns back into haploid, to germinate
164
mitosis ends in how many pairs (d/h)
-ends intwentythreepairs
-diploid
165
meiosis ends in how many pairs (d/h)
-ends in 23
-haploid
166
chiasma
during synapsis, crossing over, intersection spot
167
crossing over happens during
prophase 1
168
recombinant chromatids
same type of information
-on different arms/areas
-still homologous
169
n+n=2n
fertilizaton
170
difference between fungi cycle and humans
humans typically stay as a diploid
-fungi stay as haploid and breifly fertilize then into meiosis right away
171
plants and other algae cycle
-alternate between haploid and diploid stages (equal alternation)
sporophyte-meiosis(reduction) to spores-mitosis to gametophyte-mitosis to gametes-fertilization to zygote-mitosis to sporophyte
172
sporophyte
diploid stage
-creates spores through meiosis
173
gametophyte
haploid stage
produces gametes (n) by mitosis
174
terms assosciated to haploid
gamete
gemetophyte
egg (ovum)
sperm
spore
175
terms assosciated to diploid
zygote
sporophyte
fertilized egg
176
nondisjunction
failure for chromosomes to seperate
177
why is nondisjunction more severe in meiosis
-cell is apart of zygotes of new humans, affects all their cells in that said human
(meiosis happens in gamete producing cells)
178
where does nondisjunction happen in meiosis (two things)
in meiosis 1 --> homologous chromosomes move to the same pole in anaphase 1
in meiosis 2 ---> when chromatids fail to seperate during anaphase 2
179
autosomes
one of the numbered chromosomes
(not a sex chromosome)
180
naming of chromosome abnormalility
trisomy *number
181
polyploidy
having a chromosome number that is a multiple greater than two of the haploid number
182
benefits of polyploidy
-increases cell size
183
4n (tetraploid) examples
potatoes, coffee, peanuts, macintosh apples
184
6n (hexaploid) examples
barley, bread wheat
185
8n (octoploid) examples
strawberries
186
induced allopolyploidy
convert a sterile cross-species hybrid into a fertile allotetra-ploid
