Unit 9: Social Psychology Flashcards
Attribution theory
(Fritz Heider): we can credit/blame(attribute) the behavior to the person’s internal stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribute) OR we can attribute it to the external situation (a situational attribute)
2 ways to our brain explains someone’s behavior = personality (dispositional) & circumstances (situational)
Ex: Jack eats an entire cake = 1. He has not eaten in days(situational) 2. Greedy & Glutinous (dispositional)
Fundamental attribution error
tendency for observers when analyzing others’ behavior to UNDERESTIMATE the impact of the SITUATION & OVERESTIMATE the impact of personal DISPOSITION
ex: we attribute homelessness to a person’s personality (laziness) rather than situation
Self-serving Bias
tendency to attribute ur good behaviors to ur own personality/disposition, but ur bad behaviors to ur situation
Ex: athlete plays good = bc own ability, plays bad = bc bad field/coach
False consensus effect
Believing that everyone else shares your opinions, attributes, beliefs, behaviors & attitudes
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to search / put more value on info that confirms own beliefs while disregarding opposing info
Just-world Hypothesis
Tendency for ppl to believe the world = just/fair & ppl get what they deserve/deserve what they get
Halo Effect
When u believe someone is good, u interpret all of their actions as good & fail to notice bad traits
Attitudes
big reason why diff ppl respond diff in the same situation,
dictated by our beliefs/feelings that predispose us to respond to situations in a particular way
Elaboration likelihood model
proposes 2 types of persuasion: central route persuasion & peripheral route persuasion
Central route to persuasion
logical evidence & arguments trigger careful thinking/favorable thoughts of idea
Effective when ppl have time/energy to think/are interested in topic
Peripheral route to persuasion
Occurs when ppl = influenced by incidental cues ex: speakers attractiveness that make them see idea favorably
More likely when ppl are less invested in issue
Cognitive Dissonance
(Leon Festinger’): we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) &/or behaviors are inconsistent
when we become aware that our attitudes & actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Ex: a person who smokes and enjoys the sensation, may also know that smoking cigarettes is correlated w/ lung cancer.
To relieve the dissonance, a person must either change the behavior (stop smoking) / change the thought (“I may die young, but at least I am enjoying myself today!”)
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
Tendency for ppl who had agreed to a smaller request, to comply with a larger request later on
Door-in-the-face phenomenon
When someone starts w/ a large request that a person turns down, they are likely to agree to a smaller request
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
an expectation that causes u to behave in ways that reinforce said expectation causing it to come true
ex: placebo effect. Because we expect an antidepressant to make us feel better, & we believe that others also expect the antidepressant to make us feel better, we may actually start to do things that relieve our depression
Conformity
adjusting our behaviors/attitudes to mold to a group standard
Informational social influence
we assume that the group is smarter than the individual brain; we conform because we want to be accurate and we accept others’ versions of reality
Normative social influence
js wanting to fit in; we conform because we want to avoid rejection &/or gain approval
Solomon Asch
Experiment on Conformity
Subjects were asked to look at an image & determine which line was longer
discovered that if just 1 person answered correctly, the subject was much more likely to answer correctly.
Obedience
v similar to compliance, but requires that the person who’s giving orders/ instructions be in a position of authority
Stanley Milgram
Experiment demonstrated how ppl will obey authority figures even when they disagree
Administered shocks after being told by “authority figures” even tho some ppl administering shock did not like doing so, they continued to do it after being commanded
found that obedience is highest when:
person giving the orders was close at hand and perceived to be an authority figure 👮
authority figure = associated w/ a prestigious institution
victim = depersonalized &/or at a distance
no role models for defiance
Roles
In social situations, we often adopt a role, a social position that comes w/ a set of norms, & we adapt our behavior & attitudes to fit our role
Philip Zimbardo
Stanford Prison Experiment
When randomly assigned to behave like prison guards OR prisoners, subjects adopted that role to the point where guards became abusive to prisoners & prisoners planned a rebellion against the guards (even though subjects were allowed to opt out at any time)
Although volunteers knew it was a research set up, eventually began to act more like their assigned role of prisoner or guard, took on roles & performed the behaviors expected in that role (norms)
Bystander Effect
Tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help if others are present bc we assume someone else will help them
Social facilitation
Improved performance on simple/well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Social inhibition
Tendency to perform WORSE on difficult tasks in the presence of others
Group polarization
Enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations thru discussion w/ in group
Beliefs & attitudes we bring to group grow stronger when discussed w/ like-minded ppl
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness & self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal & anonymity (take less responsibility for actions, internet trolling/cyberbullying, can result in prosocial actions)
Diffusion of responsibility
phenomenon when there are multiple ppl present, each individual feels less of a responsibility for the situation
Out-group Homogeneity Bias
We tend to perceive more individual differences between members of the ingroup & see everyone in the outgroup as the same
In-group bias
tendency to favor our own group (the ingroup) rather than others (the outgroup)
This “US vs. THEM” phenomenon kept us safe when we evolved, today = basis of prejudice & discrimination
What is prejudice?
an unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members (ppl of a particular racial / ethnic group, gender, sexual orientation, / belief system)
involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & predisposition to discriminatory action
What are the factors involved in prejudice?
negative emotions
stereotypes
predisposition to discriminate
predisposition to discriminate
Acting in negative & unjustifiable ways toward members of the group
Stereotypes
Generalized beliefs about a
group of ppl
negative emotions
Holding emotions such as
hostility or fear
Prejudice vs Discrimination
Prejudice = negative thought usually supported by stereotypes
Discrimination = an action that causes us to treat different people differently, and even cause physical or emotional harm to others
Biases
tendencies to favor one way of thinking over another
stems from the mental concepts that we form thru out life, not inherently bad—help us think quickly & efficiently, develop heuristics, & prevent our consciousness from being clogged up with unnecessary decision-making
Heuristic
a general rule based on our experience that we use to judge & make decisions (rule of thumb)
Reciprocity norms
expectation that if I help you, you will help me
Social norms
unwritten standards of what is socially acceptable in given situations
Social traps
cause us to harm the well-being of society for our own interests
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Prisoner’s dilemma
A social trap, situation where ppl must choose between an act that is beneficial to themselves but harmful to others OR an act that is moderately beneficial to all
Conflict resolution
reduction of disagreement between individuals / groups, usually thru active strategies
ex: appeasement, negotiation, & bargaining
Superordinate goals
goals that BOTH parties want to achieve & that require cooperation
Social Loafing
Tendency for ppl in a group to exert less effort (free-riders) than when held individually accountable
Groupthink
a phenomenon that occurs when the desire for group consensus overrides people’s common sense desire to present alternatives, critique a position, or express an unpopular opinion
In-group/Out-group dynamics
Social identity = defined by the groups we associate w/
In group = “us” ppl that share a common identity
Out group = “them” those perceived as diff or apart from ingroup
Ethnocentrism
prejudicial belief that one’s culture is superior to all other cultures
ppl tend to justify their culture’s social systems while judging others’ as “bad” or “wrong”
Prejudice
unjustifiable & usually negative attitudes toward a group
Often implicit most people don’t detect they are being harmful & discriminatory
Discrimination
an action that causes us to treat different people differently, & even cause physical/emotional harm to others.
Scapegoat theory
maintains that our prejudices dictate who we blame when we are angry, & negative emotions exacerbate prejudice
Stereotype
Generalized beliefs abt a group of ppl
Mere-exposure effect
increased exposure to something or someone makes us like them more
Social responsibility norm
we should help those needing our help even if the costs outweigh the benefits
Altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others
Aggression
any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm someone, whether done out of hostility/ a calculated means to an end
Biological factors that lead to aggression
Genetic influences
Neural influences
Biochem influences
Twin studies on genetic influences on aggression
If one identical twin admits to “having a violent temper” the other twin will often independently admit the same
What psychological & social-cultural factors influence aggression?
Aversive events
Reinforcement, modeling, self-control
Media models
Frustration-aggression model
Principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger which can generate aggression
Aversive stimuli: hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, cigarette smoke, crowding can evoke hostility
How does reinforcement lead to aggression?
In situations where experience has taught us that aggression pays, we are likely to act aggressively again
How does modeling increase aggression?
Parents who act aggressively toward their children, screaming, yelling, / hitting them, may serve as models for their children of how to relate to others.
What are three factors in attraction?
Proximity (Mere-exposure effect)
Attractiveness
Similarity (Similarity attracts; perceived dissimilarity does not + reward theory of attraction)
Reward theory of attraction
says that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us
Passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship
mixes something new w/ something positive
Passion
Seeing our partner stimulates blood flow to a brain region linked to craving and obsession
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor theory of emotion
emotions have 2 ingredients:
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal (consciously interpreting our arousal as attraction to that person)
Companionate love
comes after passionate love phase, & involves deep affectionate attachment for someone else
Availability Heuristic
ability to easily recall immediate examples from the mind abt something
Hindsight bias
when you think you knew something all along after the outcome has occurred
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among ppl & require their cooperation
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting ppl, as when each side sees itself as ethical & peaceful & views other side as evil & aggressive
other-race effect/cross-race effect
tendency to recall faces of one’s race more accurately than faces of other races
social exchange theory
our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim is to maximize benefits & minimize costs
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others
equity
a condition where ppl receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give
