Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion and Personality Flashcards
Motivation
A need/desire that energizes & directs behavior
Instincts
A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned thru out a species & is unlearned
biologically determined & innate patterns of behavior that exist in ppl & animals
Incentives
A positive/negative environ stimulus that motivates behavior
Intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for one’s own sake
(ex: A person volunteers at an animal shelter because they enjoy being around animals)
Extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards/avoid threatened punishment
(ex: child get $10 for every “A” on his report card)
Overjustification effect
paradoxical effect where rewarding a person for their performance can lead to lower interest in that activity
effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do -> person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task (becomes extrinsic)
Self-efficacy
One’s sense of competence & effectiveness
Achievement motivation
A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills/ideas, for control & attaining a high standard
Drive reduction theory
Idea: a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need & restore body to homeostasis (balance)
Strengths: uses a biological basis to explain behaviors, thus backed by concrete scientific evidence
Weaknesses: Does not explain why some motivated behaviors increase arousal, omits intrinsic motivation
Primary drives
those drives that involve needs of body (ex: hunger, thirst, sex)
Acquired (Secondary) drives
drives that are learned thru experience /conditioning
(ex: need for money/ social approval)
Arousal theory (including the Yerkes-Dodson law)
individuals are motivated to perform behaviors to maintain an optimal arousal level, typically moderate/comfortable; finding right amount of stimulation
Explains yerkes-dodson law: principle that performance increases w/ arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases; moderate arousal = optimal performance
Strengths : Explains that motivated behaviors may decrease or increase arousal.
Weaknesses: Does not explain our motivation to address our more complex social needs
Evolutionary theory of motivation
Associated w/ Charles Darwin’s natural selection( those that are best adapted to their environs are most likely to mate & survive)
thus, motivation = to survive and we + animals, adapt behaviors that help us live
Strengths: helps explain similarities due to our ancestral past
weakness: helps explain animal behaviors better than human behaviors
Maslow’s theory - Hierarchy of Needs
pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base w/ physiological needs that must be 1st satisfied before higher-level more cognitive & abstract needs.
physiological needs
Safety
Belongingness & love
Esteem needs:
Self actualization
Self transcendence
strengths: incorporates the idea that we have levels of various needs.
Weakness: order of needs may change in some circumstances
physiological needs
to satisfy hunger & thirst
Safety needs
to feel that the world is organized & predictable; need to feel safe/security
Belongingness & love needs
to love & be loved, to belong & be accepted; need to avoid loneliness & separation
Esteem needs
for self-esteem, achievement, competence, independence, need for recognition & respect from others
Self actualization needs
to live up to our fullest & unique potential
Self transcendence needs
to find meaning & identity beyond self
Cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger’s theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) &/or behaviors are inconsistent by changing either our thought(attitude)/behavior to restore balance
Ex: a person who smokes and enjoys the sensation, may also know that smoking cigarettes is correlated w/ lung cancer.
To relieve the dissonance, a person must either change the behavior (stop smoking) / change the thought (“I may die young, but at least I am enjoying myself today!”)
William James
James-Lange theory of emotion
stimulating event triggers a physical body response which activates an emotion
ex: stimulus: growling dog -> physiological arousal (increased heart rate, sweating, quick breathing) -> emotion: fear
Alfred Kinsey
documented the variety of human sexual behaviors in his famous reports;
was able to dispel some common myths about what it means to be homosexual
Abraham Maslow
hierarchy of needs that predicts which needs we will be motivated to satisfy first
we will act to satisfy biological needs 1st, then emotional needs like love and self-esteem, and finally, attain our live goals and self-actualization, a need to fulfill our unique potential as a person
Stanley Schachter
two-factor/schachter-singer theory of emotion
emotion depends on the interaction between biology & cognition
both our physical responses and our cognitive labels (mental interpretations) combine to cause any emotional response
ex: stimulus: growling dog, physiological arousal: heart beat increases, cognitive label: “wow thats scary,” -> emotion: fear
Hans Selye
General Adaptation Syndrome,
describing the general responses that animals (including humans) have to a stressful event - (Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion)
Motivation
process by which activities are started, directed & continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met
Physiological needs
a basic bodily requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential to an organism’s survival
Drives
physiological need -> physiological tension/arousal (drive) that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill this need and reduce the tension
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced/constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry (ex:: blood glucose around a particular level)
the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. Functions like a “thermostat” for the body
James-Lange Theory
our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus:
stimulus -> arousal -> emotion
Physical responses occur 1ST and are cause of of emotions
Cannon-Bard Theory
An emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1) physiological responses 2) subjective experience of emotion
Emotional experience & physical response occur simultaneously - one is not dependent on the other
ex: “my heart begins pounding as I feel fear”
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
To experience emotion, one must 1) be physically aroused 2) cognitively label the arousal
Evolutionary theories (primary emotions)
Believed that emotions developed because of their adaptive value (1872)
ur body’s adaptive response motivates for survival. 3 primary emotions: fear, anger, and happiness.
fear & anger = very similar, but fear provokes more activity in our amygdala.
negative emotions = right prefrontal cortex lights up. positive emotions, = left prefrontal cortex lights up.
Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory
brain = constantly processing info in unconscious
brain will appraise (evaluation) a situation & that will determine how we physiologically & emotionally respond to stimulus (come to conclusion: stimulus = harmless/dangerous) - unconsciously
EX: we appraise the sound of the rustling bushes as the “presence of a threat” or realize that it was “just the wind”
Joseph LeDoux’s theory
Sometimes emotions(especially likes, dislikes, fears) take the more direct “low road” - a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex
a fear provoking stimulus would travel from eye/ear (via thalamus) directly to amygdala & cause immediate emotional response w/o us being immediately aware of whats happening (NO APPRAISAL)
What are the brain’s pathways for emotion?
In the 2-track brain, sensory input may be routed to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis & then sent to amygdala
OR
directly to the amygdala, via the thalamus for an instant emotional reaction.
What is the high-road?
Some complex emotions like hatred & love travel a “high road.”
A stimulus following this path would travel (via the thalamus) to the brain’s cortex. There, it would be analyzed & labeled before response command is sent out (via the amygdala)
How do the Schater Singer Zajonc -LeDoux theories of emotion compare?
Singer: our appraisal & labeling of events also determine our emotional responses
LeDoux: Some emotional responses = immediate, before any conscious appraisal(assessing)
Paul Ekman’s research on cross-cultural displays of emotion
showed photos of different facial expressions to people in different parts of the world & asked them to guess the emotion
although cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions, they differ in how much emotion they express
Microexpressions
brief facial expressions (1/25th of a sec) occurs when ppl either deliberately/unconsciously conceal an emotion being felt
Facial feedback hypothesis/effect
Tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings ex: fear, anger, happiness
Ex: smiling should typically make individuals feel happier, WHILE frowning should make them feel sadder.
General adaptation theory
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in 3 phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
PHASE 1: ALARM
reaction(stress occurs, mobilize resources), as sympathetic nervous sys is suddenly activated, body is ready to face the stressor
ur heart zooms, blood is diverted to skeletal muscles & u feel the faintness of shock w/ ur resources mobilized ur ready to fight back
PHASE 2: RESISTANCE
reaction(cope w/ stressor), ur temp, blood pressure, respiration remain high, ur adrenal glands pump hormones into ur bloodstream, u are fully engaged, summoning all resources to meet challenge -> as time passes, w/ no relief from stress, body reserves begin to lessen
We attempt to cope with the stressor. Our body is on high alert and stress hormones are released (body’s resistance to stress can only last so long before exhaustion sets in)
PHASE 3: EXHAUSTION
(reserves deplete): u become more vulnerable to illness / collapsing / death
We cannot be in high alert forever, so our body begins to be vulnerable
Coronary heart disease
Clogging of vessels that nourish heart muscles; leading cause of death in many developing countries
Cortisol
hormone associated w/ stress
small amounts give benefits in the short term, prolonged exposure can cause significant health problems.
Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory
Lewin took fight or flight(our stress response that involves the sympathetic nervous system and arouses us) but made it more complex and created different ways people address the stress causing conflict/major decision:
👍👍Approach-approach conflict
👎👎Avoidance-avoidance conflict
👍👎Approach-avoidance conflict
👍👍Approach-approach conflict
when you have to pick between 2 DESIRABLE outcomes
👎👎Avoidance-avoidance conflict
when you have to pick between 2 UNDESIRABLE outcomes
👍👎Approach-avoidance conflict
when one EVENT / GOAL has BOTH an ATTRACTIVE and UNDESIRABLE outcome
Unhealthy behaviors
When ppl = stressed, sometimes they get into unhealthy behaviors, ex: smoking, drinking, consuming drugs.
Case studies
1 individual/group is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles
Freud’s main source of his personality theories.
He was able to study his individual patients on a case by case basis & note their differences
- was very determined to form universal truths regarding personality
Surveys
for obtaining self-reported attitudes / behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
very broad and are good to use when you want a lot of info from a large sample size.
However, many surveys come with bias because not everyone responds and people could easily lie
Personality inventories
questionnaires (often w/ true-false/agree-disagree items) in which people respond to a lot of different questions/items that target a wide range of feelings & behaviors.
These are specifically used to assess selected personality traits 🧬
Ex: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which is used for emotional disorders & screening purposes
Alfred Adler
A neo-Freudian, expanded on Freud’s original psychodynamic theory w/ Karen Horney
Inferiority complex idea. spoke abt how childhood feelings of inferiority can trigger our determination for superiority/power & have a strong effect on personality development
They agreed that childhood was important, but social tension🗣️ (rather than sexual tension) is crucial for personality development
He focused more on ego than the unconscious.
Albert Bandura
Reciprocal Determinism, how a person’s personality can change based on the situation / ppl they are around
Internal cognitive factors (thoughts & feelings abt risky activities), behavior (learning to bungee jump), environmental factors (bungee-jumping friends) = ALL CONNECTED
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae
came up with the big 5 factor trait, a theory that there are 5 major factors (personality traits):
🧠Openness: open to new experiences, related to ones creativity, flexible thinking
📅Consciousness: dimensions of hard work, responsibility, and organization
💭Agreeableness: easy to get along with others, shows empathy
🗣️Extroversion: Outgoingness; a shy person would have low extraversion
😰Neuroticism: emotional stability; people with high neuroticism might be nervous, depressed, anxious
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalytic theory, Freud believed that one’s personality was essentially set in early childhood; childhood sexuality & unconscious motivations influence personality
believed mind was hidden & used free association to gain insight into individuals unconscious
as child passes thru 5 psychosexual stages, their personality develops, during these 5 stages these 3 parts that make up our personality (the id (devil), ego (angel), and superego (referee)) are formed
UNCONSCIOUS
:in Freud’s pov, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, memories (mainly unaware) (Id)
Free association
a method of exploring unconscious in which person relaxes & says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial/embarrassing
How is Freud’s view of the mind depicted?
thru an iceberg illustrates how mind is mostly hidden beneath conscious surface
on top - conscious (Superego)
middle - preconscious (ego)
bottom - unconscious (id)
Conscious
has all thoughts we are aware of & express (Superego)
Preconscious
where our other thoughts live, & can easily be accessed/ brought to conscious mind (Ego)
Unconscious
Id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strived to satisfy basic sexual & aggressive drives
Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
Ego
Largely conscious “EXECUTIVE” part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, & reality
Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
Superego
Personality part that represents internalized ideals & provides standards for judgment (the conscience) & for future aspirations
Oedipus complex
A boy’s sexual desires toward his mother & feelings of jealousy & hatred for the rival father (FREUD)
Can cope thru identifying feelings w/ rival parent
Identification
Children incorporate parents values into developing superegos (FREUD)
Defense Mechanisms (FREUD)
Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
Regression
Retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage where some psychic energy remains fixated
Acting like a younger age when anxiety was not experienced
Reaction Formation
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
Expressing the exact opposite emotion of what one feels
Projection
Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
Taking how one feels and placing it on someone else
Rationalization
Offering self-justifying explanations in place of real, more threatening unconscious reasons for actions
Making excuses for one’s situation or cause of anxiety
Displacement
Shifting sex / aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable / less threatening object/person
changing the target of one’s aggression
Sublimation
Re-channeling emotions into a socially acceptable activity
Denial
Refusing to believe / perceive painful realities
Repression (FREUD)
Basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, memories
Oral Psychosexual Stage
(birth to 1 year) pleasure is found in the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing
Anal Psychosexual Stage
pleasure focuses on bowel movements/bladder elimination; coping w/ demands for control
Phallic Psychosexual Stage
pleasure zone is in genitals; coping w/ incestuous sex feelings
Latent Psychosexual Stage
a phase of dormant sex feelings
Genital Psychosexual Stage
(adulthood) maturation of sex interests
Carl Jung
A neo-Freudian
agreed that unconscious plays large role in our development, he thought it was more than just repressed thoughts.
He proposed it consists of two different parts:
Collective unconscious - contains a common reservoir of images (ARCHETYPES - 12 ex: hero, rebel, innocent, caregiver) derived from species’ universal experiences.
Personal Unconscious
Personal Unconscious
consists of painful memories and thoughts a person doesn’t want to confront.
Collective Unconscious
passed down through a species, inherited universal concepts that we all share as humans. These concepts are called archetypes.
Abraham Maslow
Maslow is the humanistic psychologist, created the HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
believes ppl = motivated to achieve self actualization by working their way up thru hierarchy
Humanists believe that a positive self-concept = high self-esteem & when people achieve self actualization, their personalities change
Carl Rogers
humanistic psychologist
believes free-will will lead to self actualization
As long as you have one person in your life that will give you unconditional positive regard, u can reach self actualization.
Acceptance = key (unconditional positive regard); however, humanists only look at the innate good & best in people, & ignore the negative. Self actualization = a self accepting personality.
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
theories proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality.
Behaviorist and Social
theories explore the interaction
between people’s traits (including their thinking) & their social context
Humanist
theories focused on our inner capacities for growth & self-fulfillment
Trait
theories examine characteristic patterns of behavior (traits)
Collectivistic culture
Group identifications provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, & security
deep attachments to their groups— family, clan, company.
Elders receive respect
Individualistic culture
Independent sense of “me,”
awareness of their unique personal convictions & values
prioritize personal goals, define identity mostly in terms of personal traits.
strive for personal control & individual achievement.
Personality inventory
questionnaires that ask ppl to provide info abt themselves
so many different traits that could be gathered from these questionnaires, & psychologists created different versions of them.
Ex: minnesota multiphasic personality inventory(MMPI). widely used self-report instrument that has lie detector questions built into the inventory to prevent deception & social desirability
It is used in just about any realm of personality and our everyday lives
Projective tests
a personality test that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Projective test
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings & interests thru the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
provides a VALID and reliable map of ppls implicit motives
Rorschach Inkblot Test
most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach
seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Critics argue that only few of many Rorschach-derived scores, ex: for cognitive impairment /thought disorder, have demonstrated reliability and validity
