Unit 5: Cognition Flashcards
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention & conscious effort
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental info (ex: time, frequency, space, well-learned info ex: word meanings)
Procedural memory
the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks / memory of physical actions (stored in cerebellum)
knowing how to ride a bike
Well-practiced knowledge
Conditioned associations: smells = place
info abt: space, time, frequency
Recall
process: retrieval of info not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned previously
ex: fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
a person is able to identify items/something previously learned. recognizing
ex: multiple choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Encoding
Process of getting new info into memory syst (ex: extracting meaning)
process of sensing information, processing info & storing it to be retrieved later
Storage
Process of retaining encoded info over time
Retrieval
Process of getting info out of memory storage
Parallel processing
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously
Brain’s natural mode of info processing for many functions
Sensory memory
Immediate very brief recording of sensory info in memory syst
Spacing effect
Tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved thru massed study/practice
Testing effect/practice effect/test-enhanced learning
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info
Deep processing
encoding based on the word’s meaning (semantically), best for retaining info
Shallow processing
encoding on basic level, based on structure/appearance of words
Selective attention
Completely Focused on a specific topic/stimulus; keeping awareness on a specific stimulus among all sensory input / certain info & letting the rest go
Divided attention
Focused on multiple tasks at once makes it harder to focus on 1 task
Attempt to split focus but loses info from both procedures
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
Problem: is caused by the brain mechanism that allows us to switch between multiple different tasks
Metacognition
Ability to control thoughts / be aware of them
“Thinking abt thinking”
ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, & then to monitor and adjust one’s performance on that task
Implicit memory (procedural) / Non-declarative
Acquired thru automatic processing, formed w/o awareness
Retaining learned skills/classically conditioned associations but cannot be consciously recollected
info/knowledge that affects behavior or task performance
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent & LIMITLESS memory storehouse of syst
Includes knowledge, skills, experiences
Sensory memory (echoic, iconic)
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in memory syst
Echoic: a momentary sensory memory of AUDITORY stimuli, if attention is some where else, sounds/words can still be recalled w/ in 3-4 seconds
Iconic: a momentary sensory memory of VISUAL stimuli; a picture image memory lasts no more than a few 1/10s of a second
Prospective memory
Remembering to do smthn/perform an action in the future/at a certain time
Explicit memory (semantic, episodic) / Declarative
Acquired thru effortful processing, formed thru studying, rehearsing, processing
Episodic: includes memories of personal experienced events
Semantic: includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, & concepts
Retaining facts & experiences that u can consciously know and “declare” / recollect
Hippocampus
Neural center in limbic syst, helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts & events for storage
Memory consolidation
Neural storage of a long-term memory
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
An increase in cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning & memory
Priming
Activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory
Noam Chomsky
LANGUAGE, BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM believed that humans have an inborn or “native” predisposition to develop lang
Biological determinism
He believes that lang acquisition is innate & that children effortlessly learn the lang of home
Hermann Ebbinghaus
The forgetting curve / spacing effect
found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out
Wolfgang Kohler
Insight / gestalt
showed that humans arent the only creatures to display insight
Chimpanzee experiments
discovered that learning can occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part
Elizabeth Loftus
Misinformation/Eyewitness/False Memories
Demonstrated misinfo effect + memory reconsolidation
(that when ppl = exposed to subtle misleading info, ppl may misremember)
studied repressed memories & false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed & falsely created by techniques ( leading questions & illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony)
George A. Miller
Proposed that we can store abt 7 pieces of info in short-term memory
Short term memory/chunking influential
Encoding
process of getting info into the memory syst
How do we encode explicit memories / declarative memory?
thru effortful processing
How do we encode implicit / nondeclarative memories?
thru automatic processing
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices
Spacing effect:
tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than thru mass study/practice
Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info (aka retrieval practice effect / test enhanced learning)
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level (word appearance/structure)
Deep processing
encoding semantically (meaning of words/symbols)
Semantic memory
category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, and concepts unrelated to specific experiences
Episodic memory
Memory of a specific event that happened while the subject was present.
Ex: Like a TV episode
Memory consolidation
Neural storage of a long-term memory
Flashbulb memory
a clear sustained memory of a emotionally significant moment/event (9/11)
Hippocampus
Neural center in limbic syst, helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts & events for storage
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
An increase in cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning & memory
Priming
Activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory
Encoding Specificity principle
the idea that cues & context specific to particular memory will be most effective in helping u recall it
Mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall memories that are consistent w/ one’s current good/bad mood
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last(recency effect) & first items(primacy effect) on a list
Retrieval cues
When encoding a target piece of info, u associate it w/ other things to better remember (visual cues or senses)
Anterograde amnesia
An inability to form new memories
Retrograde amnesia
An inability to retrieve info from one’s past
Source amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned/imagined
Encoding failure
failure to process information into memory, inattention or lack of deep processing
Storage decay
The course of forgetting stored info is initially rapid, then levels off with time & eventually fades away
Ebbinghaus
Proactive interference
old memories interfere with new ones; ex. can’t memorize new phone number because of the old one you have had forever
retroactive interference
new memories interfere with older one; ex. can’t remember old phone number
Repression
psychoanalytic: the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud
Pseudoforgetting
phenomenon of forgetting something that you never learned
Consolidation
hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory
Reconsolidation
Process where previously stored memories are retrieved & are potentially changed before being stored again
Misinformation effect
Occurs when misleading info has distorted one’s memory of an event
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
In temporal lobes
Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed here & fed to other brain regions for storage
Switching station between STM and LTM. Sleep is essential in this process
Thalamus
Encodes sensory memory into STM
Cerebellum
Implicit memories, especially procedural memories
processing sensory input, coordinating movement
output and balance, & enabling nonverbal learning & memory
Basal Ganglia
deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories (non-declarative or implicit) for skills
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Frontal lobes (semantic & episodic memory)
Semantic memory: Recalling a password and holding it in working memory, for ex, would activate the LEFT frontal lobe
Episodic memory: Calling up a visual party scene would more likely activate the RIGHT frontal lobe
Where are memories stored?
Thru out cortex
Long term potentiation
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Encoding specificity principle
Idea that cues & contexts specific to a particular memory = most effective in helping us recall it
Short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items for a brief time before the info is stored / forgotten. Located in the frontal lobe.
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills & experiences.
Procedural (implicit)/nondeclarative memory
how-to memory that you don’t have to think about, it’s independent of conscious recollection
Goes thru cerebellum (brain part that plays an important role in forming & storing implicit memories).
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment / event
memory is as clear as looking at a pic(Ex. Being in the Twin Towers on 9/11, you remember every detail: sights, sounds, smells, etc)
Working memory
a newer understanding of Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 2nd stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory & visual-spatial information, & of info retrieved from long-term memory
Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
(Remember: an icon is a picture on your computer, iconic means visual)
Mood-congruent
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good / bad mood.
State-dependent
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state, such as being happy / sad
Context-dependent
putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime ur memory retrieval
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule / procedure: guarantees solving a problem but Takes time / effort
Contrasts w/ the usually speedier + more error prone use of heuristics
Heuristic
Lets us act quickly/efficiently
Puts us at risk for errors
Simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements & solve problems efficiently
Usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithm
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts w/ strategy-based solutions
Provides instant realization of solution but may not happen
Creativity
Ability to produce new & valuable ideas
Convergent thinking
Narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Aptitude tests like SAT
Divergent thinking
Expanding the # of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in diff directions
Creativity tests
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions & to ignore / distort contradicting evidence
lets us quickly recognize supporting evidence
Hinders recognition of contradictory evidence
Fixation
The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Obstacle to problem-solving
Focuses things on familiar solutions
Hinders creative problem solving
Mental set
Tendency to approach a problem in 1 way, often a way that has been successful
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions & judgments
Can influence others decisions but produce misleading results
Intuition
Fast, automatic feelings & thoughts
Is based on our experiences, huge & adaptive but can lead us to overfeel & overthink
Overconfidence
Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs & judgements
Allows us to be happy/make decisions easily but puts us at risk for errors
Belief perseverance
Ignoring evidence that proves our beliefs = wrong
Supports our enduring beliefs but closes our mind to new ideas
Creativity
Ability to innovate new & valuable ideas
Produces new insights & products but may distract from structured, routine work
Intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Intelligence Quotient IQ
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
Factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test
used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
Abstract versus verbal measures
IQ tests contain a diverse mixture of questions that tap abstract reasoning skills
they are intended to measure intellectual potential rather than factual knowledge, but they really reflect both
Speed of processing
raw mental speed is linked w/ intelligence, ex: the IQ test is a timed test, this leads to the assumption that faster is smarter
Fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily & abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Involves reasoning ability, memory capacity
Crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge & verbal skills
tends to increase w/ age.
involves ability to apply acquired knowledge & problem solving skills
Flynn Effect
rise in avg IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
This may be because of a better environ/health & getting used to test questions
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Savant Syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, ex: computation or drawing
Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence.
In Cameroon’s equatorial forest, intelligence may reflect understanding the medicinal qualities of local plants
Charles Spearman
creator of “g-factor”, or general intelligence concept,
believed people often have special, outstanding abilities, or “s” as well.
used factor analysis to create his theory of “g” & “s”
Howard Gardner
theory of multiple intelligences; 8 areas - often disputed
Verbal linguistic, mathematical-logical, musical, visual-spatial, existential, bodily/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist
including the verbal & mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardized tests
Robert Sternberg
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving/analytical, practical, and creative)
Robert Sternberg agrees w/ Gardner that there is more to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences BUT Sternberg proposes only 3
Spearman’s general intelligence theory (g)
Summary: a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas
Strengths: diff abilities ex: verbal & spatial do have some tendency to correlate
BUTS: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities theory
Our intelligence may be broken down into 7 factors
Strengths: a single g score is not as informative as scores for 7 primary mental abilities
BUTS: shows a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Our abilities are best classified into 8/9 independent intelligences (includes broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts
Strengths: intelligence is more than js verbal & mathematical skills, other abilities are equally important to adaptability
BUTS: Should all our abilities be considered intelligence? Shouldn’t some be called less vital talents?
Sternberg’s triarchic theory
Our intelligence is best classified into 3 areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, practical
Strengths:these 3 domains can be reliably measured
BUTS: 3 domains may be less independent than sternberg thought & may actually share underlying factor
Emotional intelligence theory
Social intelligence is an important indicator of life success, emotional intelligence is a key aspect, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, & using emotions
Strengths: 4 components predict social success & emotional well-being
BUTS: does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far?
Alfred Binet
pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help (French)
Francis Galton
interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement
Lewis Terman
revised Binet’s IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life.
Stanford-Binet IQ test. developed tests for US gov’t
Alpha and Beta Tests: IQ tests of WWII recruits.
Used to justify racist / ethnocentric immigration and education policies and forced sterilization
David Wechsler
developer of WAIS and WISC intelligence tests. Adult scale.
More focus on non-verbal reasoning. Result gives patterns of strengths and weaknesses and places on normal curve
Achievement vs. aptitude test
Achievement: exams covering what u learned
Aptitude: college entrance exam which seeks to predict ur ability to do college work
Normal curve
If a graph is constructed of test-takers’ scores, the scores typically form a bell-shaped pattern
What do the scores indicate? in the normal curve
For both the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales, a score indicates whether that person’s performance fell above or below the average
A performance higher than all but 2.5% of all scores earns an intelligence score of 130. A performance lower than 97.5% of all scores earns an intelligence score of 70.
Gifted
a child with an IQ of 130+, these children are above avg in social & emotional maturity
Students, children, / youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, / in specific academic fields, & who need services & activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities
Intellectual disability
low intellectual functioning as shown on test score performance that is in the lowest 3% of the general population, / abt 70 or below
Difficulty adapting to independence
as expressed in 3 areas, or skills: conceptual, social and practical
Down syndrome
Condition of mild-severe intellectual disability & associated physical disorders bc of extra chromosome 21
Aphasia
Impairment of lang, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca’s area (speaking) / wernicke’s area (understanding) Broca’s area
Helps control lang expression - an area of the frontal lobe
Usually in left hemisphere - directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s area
Brain area - lang comprehension & expression usually in left temporal lobe
Language
spoke, written / signed word & the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phenome
in a lang, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme
In a lang, the smallest unit that carries meaning
may be a word / part of a word (ex: prefix)
Grammar
A syst of rules that enables us to communicate w/ & understand others
Noam Chomsky
language = natural gift apart from human cognition
Theorized build in predisposition to learn grammar rules ( universal grammar)
Acquisition
the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process.
In this stage, some response is being associated w/ some stimulus to the point where we can say the organism (person, animal, etc.) has “acquired” the response
Development:
process starting early in human life.
Babbling stage: beginning around 4 months, stage of speech development where an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at 1st unrelated to household lang
1 word stage: from abt 1-2 child speaks mostly in single words
2 word stage: beginning abt age 2, child speaks mostly in 2 word statements
Telegraphic speech
Child speaks like a telegram “go car” using mostly nouns & verbs
Use of language:
a formal system of communication which involves the combination of words &/or symbols, whether written or spoken + some rules that govern them
Linguistic determinism
Strong form of whorf’s hypothesis–that lang controls the way we think & interpret the world around us
Linguistic influence
Weaker form of “linguistic relativity” the idea that lang affects thought (thinking & world view = relative to our cultural lang)
