Unit 7: Cognition Flashcards
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Information processing
we must first get information into our brain (encoding), then we must retain information (storage), and then later, get it back out (retrieval).
Atkinson and Shiffrin
proposed that we form memory in three stages
Sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
Long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. It includes knowledge, skills and experiences.
Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information and of information retrieved from long term memory
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency of events
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best, the last and first items in a list
Visual encoding
the encoding of picture images
Acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Imaging
(imagery). : mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Groupings
information being encoded is organized into chunks
Hierarchies
At advanced levels, information being encoded is organized into hierarchies – where concepts are divided and subdivided
Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no longer than a few tenths of a second
Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Long-term potentiation
an increase in synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Stress hormones
add a biological factor to the brain and memories
Amnesia
the loss of memory
Implicit memory
(like riding a bike)
retention independent of conscious recollection. Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” Also called declarative memory
Hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Cerebellum
plays a big role in forming and storing implicit memories
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Deja vu
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Absent-mindedness
inattention to detail leads to encoding failure. Much of what we sense, we never notice or encode. Age can also affect encoding.
Transcience
storage decays over time, quickly at first, then it levels off
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Motivated forgetting/repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from conscious anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories
Distortion
- misattribution
- suggestibility
- bias
Intrusion
it is easy to forget neutral events, but not emotional ones. Thus we may have intrusive memories of the ones we most want to forget.
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced
Cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototypes
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
Algorithms
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. speedy but error-prone
Insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
Mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Funcntional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme
in language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
Babbling stage
begins about 4 months and is the start of speech development
Productive language
the ability to produce words
One-word stage
the stage in speech development from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two word statements
Telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs
Linguistic determinism
Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
