Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Memory

A

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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2
Q

Encoding

A

The processing of information into the memory system

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3
Q

Storage

A

The process of retaining encoded information over time

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4
Q

Retrieval

A

The processing of getting information out of memory storage

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5
Q

Parallel Processing

A

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

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6
Q

Sensory Memory

A

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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7
Q

Short-Term Memory

A

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

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8
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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9
Q

Working Memory

A

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and information retrieved from long-term memory. AKA short-term memory that works off of long-term memory

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10
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (also known as declarative memory)

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11
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Retention independent of conscious recollection, also known as nondeclarative memory

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12
Q

Effortful Processing

A

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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13
Q

Automatic Processing

A

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

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14
Q

Iconic Memory

A

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimulus, a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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15
Q

Echoic Memory

A

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 to 4 seconds

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16
Q

Chunking

A

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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17
Q

Mnemonics

A

Memory aids; especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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18
Q

Spacing Effects

A

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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19
Q

Testing Effect

A

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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20
Q

Shallowing Processing

A

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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21
Q

Deep Processing

A

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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22
Q

Explicit Memory System

A

Includes the frontal lobe and hippocampus. Damage to this structure disrupts recall of explicit memories. EX trouble remembering verbal information, but no trouble recalling visual designs or locations

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23
Q

Hippocampus

A

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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24
Q

Implicit Memory System

A

Includes the cerebellum and basal ganglia

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25
Q

Cerebellum

A

Has a key role in forming & storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning. If damaged, people cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes, such as associating a tone with an impending puff of air; thus, not blinking in anticipation of the puff

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26
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of procedural memories or skills; EX learning how to ride a bike

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27
Q

Emotions & Memory

A

Emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation. When excited/stressed, these hormones make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that something important is happening; this provokes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia and to boost activity in the brain’s memory forming areas

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28
Q

Flashbulb Memory

A

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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29
Q

Synaptic Changes / Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and believed to be a neural base for learning and memory

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30
Q

Recall

A

People must retrieve information learned earlier (EX a fill in the blank test)

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31
Q

Recognition

A

Identifying items previously learned (EX a multiple choice test)

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32
Q

Relearning

A

Learning something more quickly the second+ time (EX easier studying for the final exam than it was studying for the initial test)

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33
Q

Priming

A

The activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory

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34
Q

Context-Dependent Memory

A

Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval

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35
Q

State-Dependent Memory

A

What we learn in what state - be it drunk or sober - may be more easily recalled when we are in that state

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36
Q

Mood-Congruent Memory

A

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

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37
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primary effect) items in a list

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38
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

An inability to form new memories. In the prefrontal cortex

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39
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past. In the hippocampus

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40
Q

Encoding Failure

A

Information never enters the long-term memory. Age effects: as age increases, encoding decreases - the brain is less responsive with age

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41
Q

Proactive Interference

A

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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42
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

43
Q

Repress

A

The basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

44
Q

Misinformation Effect

A

Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

45
Q

Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)

A

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experience, heard about, read about, or imagined. Is at the heart of many false memories

46
Q

Deja Vu

A

The eerie sense that “I’ve experience this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

47
Q

Emotion

A

A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience

48
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

49
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

Theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experiences of emotion

50
Q

Two-Factor Theory / Schachter-Singer Theory

A

To experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

51
Q

Spillover Effect

A

Arousal from watching something can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other violent confrontations

52
Q

Embodied Emotion

A

The role of the autonomic nervous system. The physiological arousal felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers activity and change in various organs. Later, the parasympathetic division calms the body

53
Q

Polygraph

A

Lie detector test. Tracks physiological responses, like perspiration, cardiovascular, and breathing changes, that accompany emotions, in order to track lying

54
Q

Expression / Cultural Emotion

A

Gestures are sometimes culturally determined, but facial expressions for basic emotions are universal (for joy, anger, interest, disgust, surprise, sadness, and fear)

55
Q

Cognition

A

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

56
Q

Concept

A

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

57
Q

Prototype

A

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

58
Q

Creativity

A

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. Has 5 components: expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment

59
Q

Convergent Thinking

A

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

60
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

Expands the number of possible problem solutions (EX creative thinking that goes in different directions)

61
Q

Algorithm

A

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with usually speedier, but more error prone, use of heuristics. EX: checking every shelf to find a particular library book

62
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. EX judging a felon to be guilty if they have tattoos or piercings because it matches stereotypes

63
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Estimating the likelihood f events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps due to vividness), we presume such events are common. EX assuming you’ll be eaten by a shark because you remember Shark Week on television

64
Q

Insight

A

Sudden realization of a problems solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

65
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

66
Q

Mental Set

A

Tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

67
Q

Intuition

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

68
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

Clinging to one’s initial concepts after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

69
Q

Framing

A

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decision and judgements. EX yogurt with 20% fat vs yogurt that’s 80% fat free

70
Q

Language

A

Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

71
Q

Phoneme

A

Smallest distinctive sound unit

72
Q

Morpheme

A

The smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (EX a prefix or suffix)

73
Q

Grammar

A

A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

74
Q

Receptive Language

A

Babies can recognize differences in speech sounds and can read lips

75
Q

Productive Language

A

Babies ability to produce words

76
Q

Aphasia

A

Impairment of language, usually caused by lest-hemisphere dames either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area

77
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Controls language expression. Directs muscle movements involved in speech

78
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Controls language reception. Involved in language comprehension and expression

79
Q

Motivation

A

A need or desire that energizes and direct behavior

80
Q

Instinct

A

A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

81
Q

Drive-Reduction Theory

A

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

82
Q

Homeostatis

A

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

83
Q

Incentive

A

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

84
Q

Hierarchy of Motivation / Hierarchy of Needs

A

Pyramid of human needs, beginning at the bottom with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs. Physiological needs > Safety > Love/Belonging > Esteem > Self-Actualization

85
Q

Optimum Arousal

A

Theory holds that some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. Well fed creatures will leave their shelter to explore and gain information, seemingly in the absence of any need-based drive

86
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

Principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. 3 ‘humps’: Low anxiety is best for difficult tasks; medium anxiety is best for medium tasks; high anxiety is best for easy tasks

87
Q

Glucose

A

Form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When it’s low, we feel hungry

88
Q

Set Point

A

Where an individuals “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the weight

89
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate

A

The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure

90
Q

Obesity

A

Condition marked by excess accumulation of body fat. Genetic & behavioral factors - especially eating too much and exercising too little.

91
Q

Sexual Response Cycle

A

Four states of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

92
Q

Refractory Period

A

Resting period after orgasm, after which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

93
Q

Sexual Dysfunction

A

A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

94
Q

Estrogens

A

Sex hormones, secreted in greater amounts by females than males and contributing to female sex characteristics

95
Q

Testosterone

A

Most important male sex hormone. Both sexes have it, but it’s increased in males. Stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and development of male sex characteristics during puberty

96
Q

Stressor Types

A

Catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles

97
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A

Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in 3 phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

98
Q

Tend-and-Befriend

A

Under stress, people often provide support to others (tend) and both with / seek support from others (befriend)

99
Q

Psychophysiological Illness

A

“Mind-body” illness, any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

100
Q

Psychoneuroimmunology

A

Study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

101
Q

Lymphocytes

A

2 types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system

102
Q

B Lymphocytes

A

Form bone marrows and fight bacterial infections

103
Q

T Lymphocytes

A

For thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances