Unit 1: History and Approaches Flashcards
Critical Thinking
Don’t “take it how it is” or blindly accept arguments and conclusions
Empiricism
Idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
Structuralism
Early school of thought, promoted by Wundt and Titchener, that used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Introspection
Process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
Functionalism
Early school of thought, promoted by James and influenced by Darwin, that explored how mental and behavioural processes enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Behaviourism
View that psychology
1. Should be an objective science that
2. Studies behaviour without reference to mental processes
Modern psychologists agree with 1 but not 2
Humanistic Psychology
Historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential
Cognitive Psychology
Study of mental processes, such as when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
Cognitive Neuroscience
Interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Psychology
The science of behaviour and mental processes
Nature-Nurture issue
Longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviours
Natural Selection
Principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed down to succeeding generations
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Behaviour Genetics
Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour
Culture
Enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Positive Psychology
Scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Biopsychosocial Approach
Integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
Behavioural Psychology
Scientific study of observable behaviour, and its explanation by principles of learning
Biological Psychology
Scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
Psychodynamic Psychology
Branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behaviour and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
Social-Cultural Psychology
Study of how situations and cultures affect our behaviour and thinking
Testing Effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
SQ3R
Study method with 5 steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
Psychometrics
Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Basic Research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Developmental Psychology
Branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Educational Psychology
Study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Personality Psychology
An I/O psychology subfield that helps with job seeking, and with employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
Social Psychology
Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Applied Research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behaviour in workplaces
Human Factors Psychology
Field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environment can be made safe and easy to use
Counseling Psychology
Branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Clinical Psychology
Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Psychiatry
Branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practised by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
Community Psychology
Branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Wilhelm Wundt
“Father of Psychology” and established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
G. Stanley Hall
Established the first formal U.S. psychological laboratory at John Hopkins University
Edward Bradford Tichener
One of Wundt’s students who introduced structuralism and introspection
William James
Considered the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings in the field of functionalism
Charles Darwin
Evolutionary theorist who developed theories of natural selection
Mary Whiton Calkins
First female president of the APA (American Psychological Association)
Margaret Floy Washburn
First woman to recieve a Ph.D. in psychology
John B. Watson
Championed psychology as the scientific study of behaviour and conducted the “Little Albert” study
B.F. Skinner
Leading behaviourist who rejected introspection and studied how consequences of reinforcement and punishment shape behaviour
Sigmund Freud
Founder of psychoanalytic psychology who studied the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behaviour
Carl Rogers
Humanistic psychologist who emphasized personal growth potential as a rejection of the psychoanalytic approach
Abraham Moslow
Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of classical conditioning learning
Jean Piaget
Cognitive psychologist who developed the most influential theories of cognitive development in children
Dorothea Dix
Advocated for more humane treatment of patients with psychological health needs
Hindsight Bias
The tendency, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (AKA the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
EX: human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
Case Study
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
Descriptive technique of observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situation without trying to manipulate or control the situation
Survey
Descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviour of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation Coefficient
Statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
Variable
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceive a stronger-than-actual relationship
Regression Towards the Mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards the average
Experiment
A research method in which a investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect of some behaviour or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiential aims to control other relevant factors
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
Double-Blind Procedure
Experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.
Placebo
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition,which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured
Validity
The extend to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Informed Consent
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures variation
Histogram
Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
The average of a distribution
Median
The middle score in a distribution, half the scores are below it and half are below it
Skewed Distribution
Representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Range
Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
