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AP Psych > Unit 2: Biological Bases > Flashcards

Unit 2: Biological Bases Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuron

A

A nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system

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2
Q

Cell Body

A

Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell’s life-support centre

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3
Q

Dendrites

A

A neutron’s (often bushy) branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

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4
Q

Axon

A

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles/glands

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5
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons, enables greater transmission speed

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6
Q

Glial Cells

A

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

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7
Q

Action Potential

A

A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon / a neural impulse

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8
Q

Threshold

A

Level of simulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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9
Q

Refractory Period

A
  1. A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired
  2. A resting period that occurs after orgasm.
    The action cannot be repeated until things are returned to their resting state
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10
Q

All-or-None Response

A

A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or no firing

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11
Q

Synapse

A

Junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite/cell body of the receiving neuron
The gap at the junction is called the synaptic gap, or synaptic cleft

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12
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. After crossing the synapse and binding to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, they influence whether the neuron will generate a neural impulse

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13
Q

Reuptake

A

A neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron

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14
Q

Endorphins

A

“Morphine within” - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

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15
Q

Agonist

A

Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

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16
Q

Antagonist

A

Molecule that inhibits/blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

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17
Q

Nervous System

A

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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18
Q

Central Nervous System

A

The brain and spinal cord

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19
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

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20
Q

Nerves

A

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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21
Q

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

A

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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22
Q

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

A

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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23
Q

Interneurons

A

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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24
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

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25
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

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26
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

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27
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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28
Q

Reflex

A

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

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29
Q

Endocrine System

A

The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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30
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

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31
Q

Adrenal Glands

A

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

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32
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

The endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influences of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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33
Q

Lesion

A

Naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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34
Q

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. Measured by electrodes placed on scalp

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35
Q

MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

A

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

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36
Q

CT Scan (Computed Tomography)

A

Series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (AKA CAT scan)

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37
Q

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

A

Visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

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38
Q

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A

Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy

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39
Q

FMRI (Functional MRI)

A

Technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

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40
Q

Brain Stem

A

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, responsible for automatic survival functions

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41
Q

Medulla

A

The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing

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42
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus. Plays an important role in controlling arousal

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43
Q

Cerebellum

A

The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem. Functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

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44
Q

Limbic System

A

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives. Includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus

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45
Q

Amygdala

A

Two lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system that are lined to emotions of fear or aggression

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46
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Neural structure below the thalamus. Directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

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47
Q

Hippocampus

A

Neural centre located in the limbic system. Helps process storage for explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

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48
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres. The body’s ultimate control and information processing centre

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49
Q

Frontal Lobes

A

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

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50
Q

Parietal Lobes

A

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear that receives sensory input for touch and body position

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51
Q

Occipital Lobes

A

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, that includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

52
Q

Temporal Lobes

A

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears that includes the auditory areas, each of which primarily receives information from the opposite ear

53
Q

Motor Cortex

A

Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

54
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

55
Q

Association Areas

A

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. Instead they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

56
Q

Plasticity

A

The brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience

57
Q

Neurogenesis

A

The formation of new neurons

58
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

The large band of neural fibres connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

59
Q

Split Brain

A

A condition resulting from a surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibres connecting them (mainly those in the corpus callosum)

60
Q

Consciousness

A

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

61
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

62
Q

Dual Processing

A

Principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

63
Q

Blindsight

A

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

64
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions

65
Q

Sequential Processing

A

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

66
Q

Behaviour Genetics

A

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour

67
Q

Heredity

A

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

68
Q

Environment

A

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

69
Q

Chromosomes

A

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

70
Q

DNA (deoxyribonulic acid)

A

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

71
Q

Genes

A

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

72
Q

Genome

A

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

73
Q

Identical (monozygotic) Twins

A

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

74
Q

Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins

A

Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

75
Q

Heritability

A

The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

76
Q

Interaction

A

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

77
Q

Molecular Genetics

A

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

78
Q

Molecular Behaviour Genetics

A

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

79
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

80
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection

81
Q

Natural Selection

A

The principle that inherited traits are better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

82
Q

Mutation

A

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

83
Q

Social Script

A

A culturally modelled guide for how to act in various situations

84
Q

Paul Broca

A

Identified the part of the brain in the left frontal lobe that is responsible for speech production

85
Q

Carl Wernicke

A

Identified the part of the brain in the left temporal lobe that is responsible for speech comprehension

86
Q

Roger Sperry

A

Discovered that the brain is made of two hemispheres with unique functions

87
Q

Michael Gazzaniga

A

Conducted research on split brain patients with an emphasis on understanding the left hemisphere as the speech centre of the brain

88
Q

Charles Darwin

A

Emphasized the natural selection principle as a way of describing human needs for survival and adaptation

89
Q

Sleep

A

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anaesthesia, or hibernation

90
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

Our biological clock; regular body rhythms (For example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

91
Q

REM Sleep

A

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep state during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

92
Q

Alpha Waves

A

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

93
Q

NREM Sleep

A

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep states except for REM sleep

94
Q

Hallucinations

A

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

95
Q

Hypnagogic Sensations

A

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, which transitioning to sleep

96
Q

Delta Waves

A

The large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3

97
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A

A pair of cell cluster in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

98
Q

Insomnia

A

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

99
Q

Narcolepsy

A

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

100
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

101
Q

Night Terrors

A

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occurs during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

102
Q

Dream

A

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

103
Q

Manifest Content

A

According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream

104
Q

Latent Content

A

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

105
Q

REM Rebound

A

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

106
Q

Psychoactive Drug

A

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

107
Q

Substance Use Disorder

A

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

108
Q

Tolerance

A

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

109
Q

Withdrawal

A

The discomfort and distress that follow the discontinuing in an addictive drug or behavior

110
Q

Depressants

A

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

111
Q

Alcohol Use Disorder

A

(Popularly known as alcoholism) Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

112
Q

Barbiturates

A

Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

113
Q

Opiates

A

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

114
Q

Stimulants

A

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

115
Q

Nicotine

A

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

116
Q

Cocaine

A

A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

117
Q

Amphetamines

A

Drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes

118
Q

Methamphetamines

A

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

119
Q

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

120
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

121
Q

Near-Death Experience

A

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such a a cardiac arrest); often similar to drug induced hallucinations

122
Q

LSD

A

A powerful hallucinogenic drug, also known as acid

123
Q

THC

A

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

124
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

Proposed that dreams have both manifest and latent content, emphasizing wish fulfilment in dream interpretation

125
Q

William James

A

Created functionalist theory as well as the idea of a “stream of consciousness” where moments flow into one another despite alterations in our various states of consciousness

AP Psych (9 decks)

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