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AP Psychology > Unit 3 - Learning > Flashcards

Unit 3 - Learning Flashcards

1
Q

Reinforcement

A

anything that when following a response increases the likelihood that the response will occur again

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2
Q

Learning

A

any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

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3
Q

Maturation

A

change due to genetic blueprint/biology

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4
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A
  • pioneered the empirical study on the basic principles of classical conditioning
  • salivating dogs experiment
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5
Q

Reflex

A

an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or choice

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6
Q

Stimulus

A

any object, event, or experience that causes a response

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7
Q

Response

A

reaction of an organism

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8
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

learning to elicit an involuntary, reflex-like, response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response

UCS –> UCR
food –> salivation

NS + UCS –> UCR
metronome + food –> salivation

CS –> CR
metronome –> salivation

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9
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

original, naturally occurring stimulus

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10
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus

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11
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

originally has no effect on response

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12
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

previously neutral stimulus; it is learned

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13
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

learned response to conditioned stimulus

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14
Q

Acquisition

A

repeated pairing of NS and UCS; organism is in process of learning

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15
Q

CR vs UCR

A

CR is weaker than UCR because the UCR is the original and the CR is learned

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16
Q

Basic Principles About Classical Conditioning

A
  • NS/CS comes before UCS
  • CS and UCS come very close together in time
  • NS paired with USC many times before conditioning can take place
  • CS is distinctive stimulus; it stands out from other competing stimuli
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17
Q

Similar Sounds vs OG Sound in Classical Conditioning

A
  • strength of response to similar stimuli is not as strong as to OG stimulus
  • more similar the stimulus is to the OG stimulus, more similar the strength of response to OG stimulus
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18
Q

Stimulus Generalization

A

tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS

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19
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

occurs when an organism learns to respond to different stimuli in different ways

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20
Q

Extinction

A

CS no longer causes CR

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21
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

CR reappears when original CS returns, although response is weak and short-lived

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22
Q

High-Order Conditioning

A

Occurs when strong CS is paired with NS; strong CS plays part of UCS and NS becomes second CS

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23
Q

John B. Watson

A
  • behaviorist

- little Albert experiment (baby trained to have phobia of rat by pairing it with loud/scary sound)

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24
Q

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

A

some of easiest forms of classical conditioning; life is full of them

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25
Q

Vicarious Conditioning

A

learn by watching someone else respond to a stimulus

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26
Q

Conditioned Taste Aversion

A

won’t eat food that is associated with a bad experience; exception to rule that learning takes place over several trials/experiences

  • mammals: biologically prepared to associate taste with illness
  • birds: biologically prepared to associate visual characteristics with illness
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27
Q

Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution

A

believed that CS, through association close in time with UCS, came to activate the same place in the brain that was originally activated by UCS

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28
Q

Robert Rescorla

A

found that CS had to provide some kind of information about the coming of the UCS to achieve conditioning

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29
Q

Cognitive Perspective

A

mental activity of consciously expecting something to occur

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30
Q

Fear and Classical Conditioning

A

conditioned response to fear can be stronger that the unconditioned response because fear is biological and necessary to survive

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31
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

kind of learning that applies to voluntary behavior

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32
Q

Edward L. Thorndike

A

one of the first researchers to explore and attempt to outline the laws of learning voluntary responses (puzzle boxes)

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33
Q

Law of Effect

A

if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated; if an action is followed by an unpleasant response, it will tend not to be repeated

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34
Q

B.F. Skinner

A
  • behaviorist

- discovered reinforcement using Skinner boxes/operant conditioning chambers

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35
Q

Reinforcers

A
  • items/events that when following a response will strengthen it
  • 2 kinds: primary and secondary
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36
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

fulfills a basic need

ex. food, water, touch, stopping pain…

37
Q

Secondary Reinforcer

A

gets its reinforcing properties from being associated with a primary reinforcer in the past (get its reinforcing power from classical conditioning)

38
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable consequence

39
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

following a response with the removal or escape from something unpleasant

40
Q

Partial Reinforcement Effect

A

a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses will be more resistant to extinction that a response that receives continuous reinforcement; partially reinforced behavior is more difficult to suppress and more like real life

41
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

a reinforcer for each and every correct response

42
Q

Interval Schedule

A

when timing of response is more important to accomplish partial reinforcement

43
Q

Ratio Schedule

A

when number of responses is more important to accomplish partial reinforcement

44
Q

Fixed Interval Schedule

A

reinforcer is received after a certain, fixed interval of time has passed
ex: mail, baking, end of class, salaried work

45
Q

Variable Interval Schedule

A

interval of time after which the individual must respond in order to receive a reinforcer changes from one time to the next
ex: email, stargazing, surfing, pop quiz

46
Q

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A

number of responses required to receive each reinforcer will always be the same
ex: rewards cards, buy 1 get 1 free, hourly work

47
Q

Variable Ratio Schedule

A

number of responses changes from one trial to another

ex: salesmen who work on commission, fishing, gambling

48
Q

Reinforcement of Behavior as Effective as Possible

A
  • timing: in general a reinforcer should be given as immediately as possible after desired behavior (especially animals and small children)
  • reinforce only desired behavior
49
Q

Punishment

A

opposite of reinforcement; it’s any event/stimulus that, when following a response, causes that response to be less likely to happen again; weakens responses; getting rid of a response that is well established is not easy

50
Q

Positive Punishment

A

when something unpleasant is added to situation

51
Q

Negative Punishment

A

behavior is punished by removal of something pleasurable

52
Q

Drawbacks to Severe Punishment

A
  • may cause child/animal to avoid punisher instead of behavior being punished, so child/animal learns wrong response
  • may encourage lying to avoid punishment which is the wrong response
  • creates fear/anxiety/emotional responses that don’t promote learning; if point is to teach, this consequence doesn’t help
53
Q

Modeling

A

presenting a behavior to be imitated

54
Q

Negative and Positive Punishment

A
  • usually only temporary
  • after some time has passed the behavior usually returns as the memory of the punishment gets weaker, allowing spontaneous recovery
55
Q

How to Make Punishment More Effective

A
  • punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish or else punishment might not be associated with behavior
  • punishment should be consistent: follow through with punishment that was promised; punishment for particular behavior should stay at same intensity or increase slightly but never decrease
  • punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired with reinforcement of right behavior
56
Q

Spanking

A

children who were spanked at age 3 in a study were more likely to be aggressive at age 5 than children who weren’t spanked

57
Q

Discriminative Stimulus

A

any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement –> specific cues lead to specific responses and discriminating between cues leads to success

58
Q

Shaping/Shaping by Successive Approximation

A

small steps toward some ultimate goal are reinforced until goal itself is reached

59
Q

Successive Approximation

A

small steps one after the other that gets closer and closer to the goal

60
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

the recurrence of a conditioned response after extinction

61
Q

Instinctive Drift

A

tendency to revert to genetically controlled patterns

62
Q

Brelands’ Ideas Contrary to Skinner’s

A
  • animal doesn’t come to lab as ‘blank slate’, and can’t be be taught just ‘any’ behavior
  • differences between species of animals matter in determining what behavior can or can’t be conditioned
  • not all responses are equally able to be conditioned to any stimulus
63
Q

Behavior Modification

A

application of operant conditioning (and sometimes classical) to bring changes in behavior

64
Q

Tokens

A

secondary reinforcers that can be traded in for other kinds of reinforcers

65
Q

Token Economy

A

use of tokens to modify behavior

66
Q

Time-Out

A

form of mild negative punishment in which a misbehaving organism is placed in a special area away from the attention of others

67
Q

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

A

form of behavior modification that uses analysis of current behavior and behavioral techniques to address a society relevant issue (skills broken down to simplest steps and taught through a system of reinforcement; prompts are given when learning a skill or if child refuses to cooperate (slowly withdrawn so they can do it independently))

68
Q

Autism

A

person has a great difficulty communicating and often refuses to look at another person

69
Q

Dr. Ivar Lovaas

A

used candy to teach social skills and language to children with autism

70
Q

Biofeedback

A

traditional term used to describe biological feedback of information, and through its use many problems can be relieved/controlled

71
Q

Neurofeedback

A

trying to change brain activity (record EEG; modern bio/neurofeedback amps are connected to electroencephalograph to record and analyze physiological activity of brain)

72
Q

Scaffolding

A

shaping with instruction

73
Q

Cognition

A

the mental events that take place inside a person’s mind while behaving

74
Q

3 Key Theorists in Early Days of Development of Cognitive Learning Theory

A
  • Edward Tolman (gestalt) - rats
  • Wolfgang Kohler (gestalt) - chimps
  • Martin Seligman (modern psychologist) - dogs
75
Q

Latent Learning

A

idea that learning could happen without reinforcement and then later affect behavior (Tolman)

76
Q

Insight Learning

A

rapid perception of relationships; can’t be gained through trial-and-error; sudden “aha moment” (Kohler)

77
Q

Positive Psychology

A

looking at entire concept of mental health and therapy that focuses on adaptive, creative, psychologically more fulfilling aspects of human experience instead of mental disorders (Seligman)

78
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of history of repeated failures in past

79
Q

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex

A
  • helps determine what situation can be controlled
  • it inhibits brain stem area and calms amygdala’s response, allowing animal to effectively respond to stressor and exhibit control (Maier - Seligman’s colleague)
80
Q

Observational Learning

A

learning of new behavior through watching the actions of a model; behavior can be desirable or undesirable

81
Q

Albert Bandera

A

bobo doll experiment –> kids copied violence against bobo doll (this doesn’t prove that TV makes children violent)

82
Q

Learning/Performance Distinction

A

learning can take place without actual performance

83
Q

Bandura’s 4 Elements of Observational Learning

A
  • attention: have to pay attention to model in order to learn
  • memory/retention: learner has to remember what was done
  • imitation/motor reproduction: learner must be able to reproduce/imitate actions of the model
  • desire/reinforcement: learner must have desire/motivation to perform the action; rewards make person more likely to imitate observed behavior; if model is punished/fails then learner not motivated to imitate
84
Q

Toilet Training Cats

A

use shaping

85
Q

Rest

A

doing nothing for a period of time during the process of shaping

86
Q

How to Make Punishment Effective

A
  • consistent
  • immediate
  • positive reinforcement
87
Q

How Punishment Can Go Wrong

A
  • only learn what ‘not’ to do
  • causes aggression
  • causes avoidance
  • only works when punisher is present
  • learned helplessness
88
Q

Graph for Schedules

A

study

89
Q

Types of Observational Learning

A
  • vicarious learning
  • social learning
  • modeling

AP Psychology (12 decks)

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