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AP Psychology > Unit 2 - Memory > Flashcards

Unit 2 - Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

hyperthymesia

A

ability to recall specific events from personal past and thinks a lot about personal past

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2
Q

memory

A

an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

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3
Q

information-processing model

3-stage memory model

atkinson shiffrin model

A

known as computer model

encoding - set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system

storage - holds onto information for some period of time (different periods of time depending on system of memory being used)

retrieval - getting information they know they have out of storage (most difficult process for people to complete)

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4
Q

parallel distributed processing model (connectionism)

A

web of interconnected concepts

simultaneous process across a series of mental networks across the brain; use of artificial neural networks to explain the mental abilities of humans

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5
Q

levels-of-processing model

A

memory’s duration depends on the effort made to understand meaning (depth) to which information is processed or encoded

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6
Q

3 types of memory stystems

A

sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory

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7
Q

sensory memory

A

first stage of memory; information that enters nervous system through sensory systems (eyes, ears…)

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8
Q

iconic sensory memory

A

visual sensory memory that only lasts 1/4 - 1/2 second

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9
Q

echoic sensory memory

A

auditory sensory memory that only lasts 4 seconds –> useful when having meaningful conversations because allows people to remember what someone said long enough to recognize meaning and respond + useful because people can hold onto incoming auditory information long enough to determine if it is worth processing

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10
Q

George Sperling

A

He studied iconic memory, used grids of letters and different tones, found that the entire grid was in iconic memory and available to the subjects

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11
Q

partial report method

A

A method that showed a grid of letters to subjects, but immediately sounded a high, medium, or low tone, and the subjects were asked to report the top row if the high tone sounded, middle row for the medium tone, and lowest row for lowest tone

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12
Q

eidetic memory (photographic)

A

ability to access visual sensory memory over long period of time

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13
Q

microssaccades

A

Tiny movements made by eyes to keep vision from adapting to a constant visual stimulus, so that what is stared at does not slowly disappear

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14
Q

short-term memory (STM)

A

if incoming sensory memory is important enough to enter consciousness then message moves from sensory memory to STM

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15
Q

selective attention

A

ability to focus on one stimulus out of all sensory input

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16
Q

masking

A

Information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information

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17
Q

Donald E. Broadbent

A

He developed an original filter theory, that a kind of “bottleneck” occurs between sensory memory and STM

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18
Q

cocktail-party effect

A

when important information appears, areas of the brain filter information into conscious awareness despite fact that you weren’t paying attention to background noise

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19
Q

Anne M. Treisman

A

proposed that selective attention operates in 2 stages of filtering:
1 - incoming stimuli in sensory memory are filtered based on physical characteristics
2 - only stimuli that meet threshold of importance are processed

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20
Q

working memory

A

often referred to as STM; relating to storage and manipulation of information

made up of 3 systems:

1) central executive - controls and coordinates the other systems
2) visuospatial sketchpad - awareness of space in front of you
3) phonological rehearsal loop - self-talk

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21
Q

George A. Miller

A

He researched how much information humans can hold in STM at any one time

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22
Q

digit-span test

A

Memory test in which a series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in order

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23
Q

capacity of STM

A

7 + or - 2

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24
Q

chunking

A

recoding/reordering information in order to hold more information (usually in meaningful groups)

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25
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repeating something in order to remember it

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26
Q

serial positioning effect

A

made up of primacy effect and recency effect

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27
Q

primacy effect

A

tendency to remember beginning of a list the best (LTM)

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28
Q

recency effect

A

tendency to remember last thing said (STM)

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29
Q

schema

A

mental categories

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30
Q

recall

A

remember something off the top of your head

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31
Q

recognition

A

remember something with the help of cues

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32
Q

long-term memory (LTM)

A
  • system into which all information is placed to be kept more or less permanently
  • 3rd stage of memory
  • unlimited capacity
  • memories always available but not always accessible
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33
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

way of transferring information from STM to LTM by making information meaningful in some way

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34
Q

non-declarative memory/implicit memory

A
  • memory for skills/procedural memory

- includes priming

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35
Q

priming

A

improvement in identifying and processing concepts, words, and objects after having prior experience and memory associations learned through classical or operant conditioning

36
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

loss of memories from point of injury or illness forward

  • long-term declarative memories cannot be formed (damage to hippocampus)
  • more common than retrograde
  • often result of illness
  • more permanent, most don’t recover
  • can create new procedural memories
37
Q

declarative memory/explicit memory

A
  • memory for facts/semantic memory

- includes episodic memory

38
Q

semantic memory

A

general knowledge

39
Q

episodic memory

A

personal knowledge

40
Q

flashbulb memory

A

mind takes “flash picture” when unexpected event or episode in person’s life has strong emotional associations (often incorrect because of frequency they are repeated)

41
Q

prospective memory

A

allows people to remember to perform tasks later

42
Q

retrieval cue

A

stimulus for remembering

43
Q

encoding specificity

A

connection between surrounding and remembered information; tendency for information to be improved if retrieval conditions are similar to conditions under which information was encoded

44
Q

context-dependent learning

A

memories formed during a particular physiological/psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state

45
Q

tip of tongue phenomenon (TOT)

A

when answer feels so close to consciousness that it’s on “tip of tongue”

46
Q

Elizabeth Loftus

A

focuses on inaccuracies of memory retrieval (eyewitness testimony; constant updated memories)

47
Q

automatic encoding

A

people unconsciously notice and remember a lot of things

48
Q

effortful encoding

A

people have to try in order to remember it

49
Q

mnemonist

A

memory expert or someone with exceptional memory abilities

50
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus

A
  • one of first to study forgetting
  • created the curve of forgetting
  • learned that distributed practice produces better retrieval information than massed practice
51
Q

curve of forgetting

A

forgetting is greatest just after learning the information

52
Q

encoding failure

A

failure to process information into memory

53
Q

memory trace

A

some physical change in the brain which occurs when a memory is formed (if traces aren’t used, they decay)

54
Q

decay

A

term for fading information in LTM

55
Q

proactive interference

A

tendency for older/previously learned material to interfere with the learning and retrieval of new information

56
Q

retroactive interference

A

newer information interferes with retrieval of older information

57
Q

where are procedural memories stored?

A

cerebellum

58
Q

where is STM stored?

A

prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe

59
Q

where are memories of fear stored?

A

amygdala

60
Q

where are semantic and episodic LTM stored?

A

frontal and temporal lobes

61
Q

long-term potentiation

A

changes in sensitivity of synapse through repeated stimulation

62
Q

consolidation

A 
takes place as memories are forming so they are properly encoded/stored
-changes in number of receptor sites
-long-term potentiation
-changes in dendrites
-changes in proteins in neurons
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63
Q

hippocampus

A

responsible for forming new long-term declarative memories

64
Q

H.M.

A

patient whose hippocampi and medial temporal lobe were removed in an attempt to stop his epileptic seizures

  • he could no longer remember new events or facts
  • his procedural memory was intact but his declarative (semantic and episodic) memory was lost
65
Q

repression

A

type of psychologically motivated forgetting in which a person cannot remember a traumatic event

66
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory from point of injury backward

67
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory from point of injury backward

  • lose episodic and semantic memory
  • over time memories return (chunk of time around accident probably won’t be recovered)
  • due to accident/injury
68
Q

senile dementia

A

mental disorder with severe forgetfulness, mental confusion, and mood swings (usually suffer from anterograde amnesia)

69
Q

alzheimer’s disease

A
  • first anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia comes as disease progresses
  • brain has physical signs of aging
  • neurons that produce acetylcholine (to form memories) break down in early stages of disease
  • no cure but risk factors can be managed
  • early-onset is genetic
70
Q

infantile amnesia

A

early memories are implicit, and hard to bring to consciousness unlike explicit memories, which do not develop until age 2, when the hippocampus is more developed and language skills bloom

71
Q

autobiographical memory

A

memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story; develops as children are able to talk about shared memories with adults

72
Q

3 factors to help maintain/improve memory health

A

1) sleep - memories rehearsed during sleep and waking are more likely to be consolidated and remember better later + sleep deprivation interferes with functioning of hippocampus
2) moderate exercise - norepinephrine is released during exercise, and it helps in formation of memories
3) diet high in DHA - diet high in DHA improves memory function

73
Q

encoding specificity principle

A
  • context and retrieval
  • mood congruence
  • state dependent
74
Q

P.O.R.N.

A

Proactive interference - Old information gets in the way

Retroactive interference - New information gets in the way

75
Q

motivated forgetting

A

suppression (on purpose) versus repression (unconscious)

76
Q

Frederic Barlett

A

saw process of memory as similar to creating a story instead of reading one already written

77
Q

reconstructive processing

A

memories are built/reconstructed from information stored during encoding - each time memory is retrieved, it can be altered to include new information or to exclude details

Elizabeth Loftus studied this

78
Q

constructive processing

A

memories are built/reconstructed from information stored during encoding - each time memory is retrieved, it can be altered to include new information or to exclude details

Elizabeth Loftus studied this

79
Q

misinformation effect

A

false memories created by a person being exposed to information after event –> information becomes part of actual memory, affecting accuracy

Elizabeth Loftus studied this

80
Q

false memory syndrome

A

creation of inaccurate/false memories through suggestion of others, often while person is under hypnosis

81
Q

hypnosis

A
  • makes it easier to recall real memories, but also makes it easier to create false memories
  • increases confidence people have in their memories, whether or not they are real or false
82
Q

2 steps in order for a false memory to be interpreted as true

A

1) event must be made to seem as plausible as possible

2) individuals are given information that helps them believe that the event could have happened to them personally

83
Q

variables that predicted higher false recall/recognition

A
  • people who are most likely to recall/recognize false items
  • susceptibility to hypnosis
  • symptoms od depression
  • tendency to exhibit odd behavior and unusual beliefs
84
Q

memory reconstruction

A
  • sharpening: certain aspects are emphasized and form the core part of the story
  • assimilation: discrepant information is changed to conform to the core of the story so that it seems more logical
  • leveling: stories get shorter over time
85
Q

eyewitness testimony

A
  • constant retelling
  • merging new information from other eyewitness testimonies with your own
  • less precise recording of information because of overreaction of neurotransmitters pumping through body at time of event
  • asking leading questions by the police can form new false memories

AP Psychology (12 decks)

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