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AP Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Cognition

A

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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2
Q

metacognition

A

Keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

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3
Q

concepts

A

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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4
Q

prototype

A

Mental image or best example of a category

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5
Q

How are prototypes useful?

A

They make sorting items into categories easier as matching the new item to a prototype is quick and easy

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6
Q

schemas

A

Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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7
Q

Assimilation

A

Interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

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8
Q

Accommodate

A

Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information

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9
Q

creativity

A

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

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10
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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11
Q

divergent thinking

A

expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions

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12
Q

What are the 5 components of creativity

A

Expertise
imaginative thinking skills
venturesome personality
intrinsic motivation
creative environment

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13
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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14
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

Ability to attend to only 1 voice within a sea of many others as you chat with a party guest

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15
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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16
Q

Change blindness

A

Failing to notice changes in the environment, a form of inattentional blindness

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17
Q

perceptual set

A

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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18
Q

What can expectations give us and what does it effect?

A

It may give us a perceptual set that would effect top-down and our senses

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19
Q

What are formed through experiences?

A

Concepts/schemas that organize and interpret unfamiliar information

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20
Q

What can effect interpretations?

A

Immediate context, motivations, and emotions

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21
Q

gesalt

A

an organized whole, emphasizes the tendency to integrate pieces into meaningful wholes

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22
Q

figure-ground

A

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

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23
Q

What are some basic features of a scene that are processed instantly and automatically?

A

color, movement, light-dark contrast

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24
Q

how does the mind bring order and form to other stimuli?

A

by grouping

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25
Q

grouping

A

tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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26
Q

depth perception

A

ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are 3 dimensional, also allows us to judge distance

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27
Q

Binocular cues

A

A depth cue that depends on the use of 2 eyes

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28
Q

convergence

A

A cue to nearby object’s distance enabled by the brain combining retinal images

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29
Q

retinal disparity

A

Binocular cue for perceiving depth. Compares the different retinal images from the 2 eyes, where it computers distance from disparity

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30
Q

if an object is close to the eyes, is the disparity greater or smaller?

A

greater

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31
Q

if an object is far from the eyes, is the disparity greater or smaller?

A

smaller

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32
Q

Monocular cues

A

Dept cue that is available to either eye alone

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33
Q

Relative clarity

A

Objects that are further away appear hazy or blurry. Closer objects are sharper and clearer

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34
Q

Relative size

A

2 objects of relative size, the one that seems smaller are farther away

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35
Q

texture gradient

A

Further away objects are smoother, closer objects have more texture

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36
Q

linear perspective

A

Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. A sharper angle of convergence means a greater perceived distance

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37
Q

interposition

A

If one objects partially blocks our view of another, it is perceived as closer

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38
Q

How does the brain normally compute motion?

A

It computes motion on the assumption that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching

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39
Q

If a small object and a large object move at the same speed, which do we perceive as faster?

A

The smaller object

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40
Q

Stroboscopic movement

A

Illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

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41
Q

Phi phenomenon

A

Illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

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42
Q

Autokinetic effect

A

Illusionary movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

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43
Q

perceptual constancy

A

Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

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44
Q

is perceptual constancy a top-down or bottom-up process?

A

top-down

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45
Q

Color constancy

A

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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46
Q

Brightness constancy

A

Perceiving an object as having constant brightness despite illumination variation

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47
Q

Shape constancy

A

Perceiving the form of familiar objects as constant while the retina receives changing images of them

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48
Q

How does shape constancy work in the brain

A

The visual cortex neurons learning to associate different views of an object

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49
Q

Size constancy

A

Perceiving an object as having unchanging size despite our visual distance from it changing

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50
Q

Critical period

A

A period when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is required

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51
Q

Perceptual adaptation

A

Ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

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52
Q

What are the 2 arguments about human perception?

A

Kant - knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing sensory experiences
Lock - experiences shape how we perceive the world

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53
Q

executive functions

A

Cognitive skills that work together, enabling organization, planning, and goal-oriented behavior

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54
Q

algorithms

A

Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

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55
Q

heuristics

A

Simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

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56
Q

what are 2 differences between algorithms and heuristics?

A
  • heuristics is speeder
  • heuristics is more error prone than algorithms
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57
Q

insight

A

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution, contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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58
Q

What part of the brain does insight activate?

A

Right above the ear in the right temporal lobe

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59
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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60
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to approach a problem in 1 particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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61
Q

intuition

A

Effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought

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62
Q

Representative heuristic

A

Judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes, might lead to us ignoring other relevant information

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63
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instances come readily to the mind, those events are perceived as common

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64
Q

overconfidence

A

Tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

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65
Q

Planning fallacy

A

Overestimating future leisure time and income

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66
Q

sunk-cost fallacy

A

Sticking to an original plan because we have invested our time, instead of switching to a new, more efficient approach

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67
Q

Belief perserverance

A

Persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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68
Q

Motivated reasoning

A

Using their conclusions to assess the evidence instead of objectively reviewing the evidence

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69
Q

framing

A

The way an issue is posed, can significantly effect decisions and judgements

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70
Q

nudge

A

Framing choices in a way that encourages people to make decisions

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71
Q

Is intuition adaptive?

A

yes

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72
Q

What is intuition made from?

A

experience

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73
Q

memory

A

Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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74
Q

What are the 3 retention measures?

A

Recall, recognition, relearning

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75
Q

Recall

A

Retrieving information that isn’t not in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

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76
Q

Recognition

A

Identifying items previously learned

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77
Q

Relearning

A

learning something more quickly when it is learned a second or at a later time

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78
Q

What is Hermann Ebbinghaus known for?

A

Ebbinghaus retention curve

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79
Q

What does the Ebbinghaus retention curve portray?

A

Shows that additional rehearsal/overlearning of verbal information increases retention

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80
Q

What are the parts of the information-processing model?

A

Encode, store, retrieve

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81
Q

encode

A

process of getting information into the memory system

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82
Q

store

A

Process of retaining encoded information over time

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83
Q

retrieve

A

Process of getting information out of memory storage

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84
Q

What is an example of neurplasticity in memory?

A

When you learn something new, the brain’s neural connections change

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85
Q

what are the 3 parts of the multi-store model?

A

Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memroy

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86
Q

Sensory memory

A

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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87
Q

Short-term memory

A

Briefly activated memory of a few items that is alter stored or forgottten

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88
Q

Long-term memory

A

Relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system

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89
Q

Working memory

A

Conscious active processing of both sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

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90
Q

What does working memory help prolong and through what?

A

Prolongs memory storage through maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

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91
Q

Central executive

A

Memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

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92
Q

phonological loop

A

Memory component that briefly holds auditory information

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93
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

Memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

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94
Q

long-term potentiation

A

Increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, a neural basis for learning and memory

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95
Q

explicit memories

A

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

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96
Q

effortful processing

A

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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97
Q

automatic processing

A

unconscious encoding of incidental information or familiar/well-learned information

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98
Q

implicit memories

A

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

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99
Q

procedural memory example

A

how to ride a bike

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100
Q

classical conditioning

A

type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli and anticipate events

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101
Q

what are 3 things that are automatically processed without conscious effort?

A

space, time, frequency

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102
Q

iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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103
Q

echoic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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104
Q

How many pieces of information can we hold in short-term memory. Who proposed this?

A

7+-2
George Miller

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105
Q

what age group does task-switching not effect?

A

none, task switching/multitasking for all age groups is worse than focusing on 1 task at a time

106
Q

chunking

A

organizing items into familiar, manageable units that often occurs automatically

107
Q

mnemonics

A

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

108
Q

what occurs when people process information in an area they have developed expertise in?

A

they form hierarchies, they are composed of broad categories that divide into subcategories (flowchart)

109
Q

spacing effect

A

tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

110
Q

What are the results of massed practice?

A

speedy short-term learning and more confidence (false or not)
Forgetting the material quicker

111
Q

Effects of distributed practice

A

better long-term recal

112
Q

testing effect

A

enhanced memory after retrieving

113
Q

Shallow processing

A

encoding on a basic level
ex. based on structure or appearance of words (structural encoding, phonemic encoding)

114
Q

Deep Processing

A

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words and yields the best retention

115
Q

What type of information do people excel at remembering?

A

personally relevant information

116
Q

self-reference effect

A

tendency to remember self-relevant information

117
Q

semantic

A

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

118
Q

episodic

A

Explicit memory of personally experienced events

119
Q

What are the 2 conscious memory systems?

A

Semantic and episodic

120
Q

How do our schemas effect memory processing?

A

New explicit memories are more readily stored if they fit within existing schemas than if they don’t

121
Q

What are the brain regions that process and store new explicit memories and episodes?

A

Frontal lobes and hippocampus

122
Q

What part of the brain is activated when you remember a memory

A

Prefrontal cortex for working memory processing

123
Q

What type of memory does the left frontal lobe hold?

A

Calculative memories, semantic

124
Q

What type of memory does the right frontal lobe hold

A

Visual scenes, episodic

125
Q

Hippocampus function in memory

A

Processes explicit memories of facts and events for storage

126
Q

What happens to the hippocampus’s ability to process memories as we age?

A

It grows, enabling people to be able to construct more detailed memories

127
Q

What occurs if there is damage to the hippocampus?

A

The formation of explicit memories are disrupted and the recall of them degrade

128
Q

What does the rear end of the hippocampus do?

A

Processes spatial memory

129
Q

Are memories stored permanently in the hippocampus?

A

no

130
Q

How does the hippocampus act as a loading dock?

A

It is the region where the brain registers and temporarily holds the elements of an episode, then it moves it to the cortex

131
Q

memory cosolidation

A

Neural storage of a long-term memory, hippocampus to cortex

132
Q

What supports memory consolidation?

A

sleep

133
Q

Cerebellum function in memory

A

Forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

134
Q

What happens to memory if the cerebellum is damaged?

A

People are unable to develop certain conditioned reflexes, like associating smoke with fire

135
Q

Basal ganglia function in memory

A

Facilitates the formation of our procedural memories for skills

136
Q

How do strong emotions contribute to memory?

A

Strong emotions make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, improving memory

137
Q

What provokes the amygdala to make a memory trace?

A

stress

138
Q

memory trast

A

lasting physical change as the memory forms

139
Q

Amygdala function in memory

A

Improves memory in emotionally-charged situations

140
Q

How do emotional events effect attention?

A

Attention and recall is focused on high priority information while irrelevant details are reduced

141
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

142
Q

recall

A

Ability to produce previously learned informationre

143
Q

recognition

A

ability to identify previously learned items

144
Q

Retrospective memory

A

The past

145
Q

prospective memory

A

Intended future actions

146
Q

Priming (mem)

A

Activation of certain associations predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

147
Q

Is priming implicit or explicit

A

Implicit because it occurs without conscious awareness

148
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall

149
Q

Context dependent meory

A

Memory is effected by the cues we have associated with that context

150
Q

State dependent memory

A

What is learned in one state of being is more easily recalled when we are in that state again

151
Q

mood congruent memories

A

Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

152
Q

Serial position effect

A

Tendency to recall the last items in a list and the first items in a list after a delay

153
Q

Receny effect

A

Tendency to recall the last items in a list the best

154
Q

Primacy effect

A

Tendency to recall the first items in a list after a delay

155
Q

Interleaving

A

Retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

156
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Inability to form new memories

157
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Inability to remember information from one’s past

158
Q

What occurs when people with anterograde amnesia learn something?

A

Their automatic processing was still active and working so they were able to learn a skill but unable to remember consciously learning it

159
Q

Encoding failure

A

The inability to encode working/short term memory ino long-term memory

160
Q

displacement

A

Information that isn’t encoded in long term storage being forgotten as new information enters short-term memory

161
Q

Storage decay

A

Gradual fading of information stored in the brain over time due to the passage of time or lack of use

162
Q

Retrieval failure

A

Failure to retrieve memories from long term memory

163
Q

Proactive interference

A

Forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

164
Q

retroactive interference

A

Backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

165
Q

Why is the information presented in the hour before sleep more remembered?

A

There are less interfering events between the information presented and sleep

166
Q

Repression

A

Psychoanalytic theory that a basic defense mechanism blocks memories due to undesirable memories

167
Q

reconsolidation

A

Process in which previously stored memories are potentially altered before being stored again

168
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading informaion

169
Q

Source amnesia

A

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

170
Q

Deja vu

A

Sense that an event has been experienced before due to cues from the current situation unconsciously triggering retrieval of an earlier experience

171
Q

Imagination Inflation

A

Memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

172
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A

Inability to remember events from early childhood

173
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Linking of new information to material that is already known

174
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short term memory

175
Q

Method of Loci

A

Mnemonic device that involves imagining placing items you want to remember along a route you know well, or in specific locations in somewhere familiar

176
Q

Hierachies

A

systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

177
Q

Structural encoding

A

Shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

178
Q

Phonemic encoding

A

Encoding of sounds

179
Q

Procedural memory

A

Implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

180
Q

Apparent movement

A

Perception that a stationary object is moving

181
Q

Gambler’s Fallacy

A

fallacy of thinking that future probabilities are altered by past events

182
Q

Sunk Cost Fallacy

A

making decisions about a current situation based on what one has previously invested in the situation

183
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Special form of episodic memory consisting of a person’s recollection of his or her life experiences

184
Q

intelligence

A

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

185
Q

Who thought of the theory of general intelligence

A

Charles Spearman

186
Q

General intelligence

A

A factor that underlies all mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test

187
Q

Factor analysis

A

A statistical procedure that identities clusters of related items used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlies a perron’s total score

188
Q

Who was Spearman’s critic

A

L.L Thurstone

189
Q

What was LL Thurstone’s contribution to the theory of general intelligence

A

He identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities and tested people’s intelligence based on them. His experiment ultimately proved the existence of a g factor

190
Q

What did Cattel and Horn contribute to the theory of general intelligence

A

Fluid intelligence and crystaliized intelligence

191
Q

fluid intelligence

A

ability to reason quickly and abstractly

192
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

Accumulated knowledge

193
Q

Cattel-Horn-Carrol theory

A

Intelligence is based on a g factor as well as specific abilities, Gf and Gc

194
Q

What was behind the theory of multiple inntelligences

A

Howard Gardner

195
Q

What are the 8 independent intelligences

A

Naturalist
interpersonal
intrapersonal
social-kinesthetic
spatial
musical
logical-mathematical
linguistic

196
Q

what is savant syndrome

A

condition where a person is limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

197
Q

What does Sternberg’s triarchic theory propose

A

3 measured intelligences
Analytical, Creative, and Practical

198
Q

grit

A

Passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long time goals

199
Q

How long does it take to become an expert

A

10 years of consistent deliberate practice

200
Q

Who was behind the idea of social intelligence

A

Edward Thorndike

201
Q

emotional intelligence

A

Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

202
Q

What is perceiving emotions

A

Recognizing them

203
Q

What is understanding emotions

A

Predicting them and how they might change

204
Q

What is managing emotions

A

knowing how to express them in situations and how to handle others emotions

205
Q

What is using emotions

A

To facilitate adaptive and creative thinking

206
Q

Intelligence test

A

Method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others

207
Q

achievement tests

A

Assesses what has been learned

208
Q

aptitude tests

A

Designed to predict a person’s future performance, capacity to learn

209
Q

collectivism

A

Collective welfare of the family, community, and society

210
Q

individualism

A

promoting individual oppurtunity

211
Q

What is Francis Galton best known for

A

Believed intelligence and ability stemmed from genetics
founded the eugenics movement and forced sterilization for those lacking

212
Q

When did modern intelligence testing start

A

Early 20th century in France

213
Q

Mental age

A

Measure of intelligence test, level of performance associated with children of a certain chronological age

214
Q

What did Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon assume about child development

A

All child follow the same intellectual development but some develop more rapidly

215
Q

Who was behind mental age

A

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

216
Q

What was Alfred Binet’s intent behind developing mental age

A

To improve children’s education

217
Q

Stanford-Binet

A

American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test

218
Q

How did Lewis Terman modify Binet’s test

A

He adding new items, established new age norms and extended the test from 12 year old’s to adults

219
Q

Intelligence quotient

A

(Mental age / chronological age) x 100 = iq
the average performance for an age is 100

220
Q

Who developed iq?

A

William Stern

221
Q

How are modern intelligence test governed

A

IQ now represents the test-taker’s performance relative to the average performance to others of the same age

222
Q

Did Terman’s view align more with Galton or Binet

A

Galton, believed in eugenics and that ethnic groups were genetically inferior

223
Q

Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale & the Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children

A

Most widely used intelligence test that contains many subtests

224
Q

Who created the WAIS and the WISC

A

David Wechsler

225
Q

What does the WAIS give results on

A

Intelligence score
verbal comprehension
perceptual reasoning
working memory
processing speed

226
Q

What must a psychological test have to be accepted

A

Psychometric properties of being standardized, reliable, and valid

227
Q

psychometric

A

Scientific study of the measurements of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

228
Q

standardization

A

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

229
Q

Normal curve

A

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve where most scores fall near the mean

230
Q

Flynn Effect

A

Rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

231
Q

Who created/noticed the Flynn Effect

A

James Flynn

232
Q

What contributed the most to IQ score growth

A

Economic growth

233
Q

What lead to regional reversals in IQ

A

Poverty, discrimination, educational inequities

234
Q

reliability

A

Extent to which a test yields consistent results

235
Q

How is reliability assessed?

A

Consistency of:
- 2 halves of the test
- alternative forms of the test
- retesting

236
Q

Split-half

A

Agreement of odd-numbered question scores and even-numbered question scores

237
Q

If the correlation between the scores are higher, is the test more or less reliable

A

More reliable

238
Q

validity

A

Extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

239
Q

Content validity

A

Extent to which a test samples the behaviors that is of interest

240
Q

construct validity

A

How much a test measures a concept or trait

241
Q

Predictive validity

A

Success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

242
Q

How is predictive validity assessed

A

By computing correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

243
Q

Are general aptitude tests predictive

A

No, they predict early school grades but weaken in later school years

244
Q

Why do general aptitude test scores become less predictive

A

The range of scores in a school or area are similar, making it harder to determine things

245
Q

Do intelligence test scores become more or less consistent with age

A

More consistent and stable

246
Q

Who was the originator of the idea that mental ability decreased with age, was he correct or not

A

David Wechsler, he was incorrect

247
Q

Does intelligence remain stable or unstable as we age

A

stable

248
Q

Do cross sectional studies suggest that intelligence declines or remains stable

A

decline

249
Q

Do longitudinal method studies suggest that intelligence declines or remains stable

A

stable

250
Q

Crystallized intelligence increases with age, True or Flase

A

True

251
Q

Fluid Intelligence decreases with age. True or False

A

True

252
Q

heritability

A

Portion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attributes to genes

253
Q

If a group of students were raised exactly the same, would heritability increase or decrease

A

Increase since the differences would have to be contributed to genetics

254
Q

Is intelligence polygenetic

A

es

255
Q

Do adopted children share mental similarities with their adoptive families

A

Adopted children tend to share more mental similarities with their biological parents than their adopted parents

256
Q

Growth mindset

A

Focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed

257
Q

fixed mindset

A

view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable

258
Q

Are boys or girls smarter

A

Their intelligence score are extremely similar with minor differences

259
Q

What are 2 agreed upon facts on group differences

A

Racial and ethnic groups mostly overlap but differ in intelligence scores
high scoring groups are more likely to obtain high levels to education and income

260
Q

Stereotype threat

A

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stererotype

261
Q

Stereotype lift

A

Being exposed to situations that create stereotype threat in outgroup members may improve performance

AP Psychology (5 decks)

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