Unit 2 Flashcards
Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
metacognition
Keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes
concepts
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
Mental image or best example of a category
How are prototypes useful?
They make sorting items into categories easier as matching the new item to a prototype is quick and easy
schemas
Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
Interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodate
Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information
creativity
Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Convergent thinking
Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions
What are the 5 components of creativity
Expertise
imaginative thinking skills
venturesome personality
intrinsic motivation
creative environment
Selective attention
Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Cocktail party effect
Ability to attend to only 1 voice within a sea of many others as you chat with a party guest
Inattentional blindness
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Change blindness
Failing to notice changes in the environment, a form of inattentional blindness
perceptual set
Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
What can expectations give us and what does it effect?
It may give us a perceptual set that would effect top-down and our senses
What are formed through experiences?
Concepts/schemas that organize and interpret unfamiliar information
What can effect interpretations?
Immediate context, motivations, and emotions
gesalt
an organized whole, emphasizes the tendency to integrate pieces into meaningful wholes
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
What are some basic features of a scene that are processed instantly and automatically?
color, movement, light-dark contrast
how does the mind bring order and form to other stimuli?
by grouping
grouping
tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
depth perception
ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are 3 dimensional, also allows us to judge distance
Binocular cues
A depth cue that depends on the use of 2 eyes
convergence
A cue to nearby object’s distance enabled by the brain combining retinal images
retinal disparity
Binocular cue for perceiving depth. Compares the different retinal images from the 2 eyes, where it computers distance from disparity
if an object is close to the eyes, is the disparity greater or smaller?
greater
if an object is far from the eyes, is the disparity greater or smaller?
smaller
Monocular cues
Dept cue that is available to either eye alone
Relative clarity
Objects that are further away appear hazy or blurry. Closer objects are sharper and clearer
Relative size
2 objects of relative size, the one that seems smaller are farther away
texture gradient
Further away objects are smoother, closer objects have more texture
linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. A sharper angle of convergence means a greater perceived distance
interposition
If one objects partially blocks our view of another, it is perceived as closer
How does the brain normally compute motion?
It computes motion on the assumption that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching
If a small object and a large object move at the same speed, which do we perceive as faster?
The smaller object
Stroboscopic movement
Illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images
Phi phenomenon
Illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
Autokinetic effect
Illusionary movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
perceptual constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
is perceptual constancy a top-down or bottom-up process?
top-down
Color constancy
Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Brightness constancy
Perceiving an object as having constant brightness despite illumination variation
Shape constancy
Perceiving the form of familiar objects as constant while the retina receives changing images of them
How does shape constancy work in the brain
The visual cortex neurons learning to associate different views of an object
Size constancy
Perceiving an object as having unchanging size despite our visual distance from it changing
Critical period
A period when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is required
Perceptual adaptation
Ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
What are the 2 arguments about human perception?
Kant - knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing sensory experiences
Lock - experiences shape how we perceive the world
executive functions
Cognitive skills that work together, enabling organization, planning, and goal-oriented behavior
algorithms
Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristics
Simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
what are 2 differences between algorithms and heuristics?
- heuristics is speeder
- heuristics is more error prone than algorithms
insight
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution, contrasts with strategy-based solutions
What part of the brain does insight activate?
Right above the ear in the right temporal lobe
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Mental set
Tendency to approach a problem in 1 particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
Effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought
Representative heuristic
Judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes, might lead to us ignoring other relevant information
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instances come readily to the mind, those events are perceived as common
overconfidence
Tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Planning fallacy
Overestimating future leisure time and income
sunk-cost fallacy
Sticking to an original plan because we have invested our time, instead of switching to a new, more efficient approach
Belief perserverance
Persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Motivated reasoning
Using their conclusions to assess the evidence instead of objectively reviewing the evidence
framing
The way an issue is posed, can significantly effect decisions and judgements
nudge
Framing choices in a way that encourages people to make decisions
Is intuition adaptive?
yes
What is intuition made from?
experience
memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
What are the 3 retention measures?
Recall, recognition, relearning
Recall
Retrieving information that isn’t not in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
Relearning
learning something more quickly when it is learned a second or at a later time
What is Hermann Ebbinghaus known for?
Ebbinghaus retention curve
What does the Ebbinghaus retention curve portray?
Shows that additional rehearsal/overlearning of verbal information increases retention
What are the parts of the information-processing model?
Encode, store, retrieve
encode
process of getting information into the memory system
store
Process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieve
Process of getting information out of memory storage
What is an example of neurplasticity in memory?
When you learn something new, the brain’s neural connections change
what are the 3 parts of the multi-store model?
Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memroy
Sensory memory
Immediate, brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term memory
Briefly activated memory of a few items that is alter stored or forgottten
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system
Working memory
Conscious active processing of both sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory
What does working memory help prolong and through what?
Prolongs memory storage through maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
Central executive
Memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
phonological loop
Memory component that briefly holds auditory information
visuospatial sketchpad
Memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space
long-term potentiation
Increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, a neural basis for learning and memory
explicit memories
retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information or familiar/well-learned information
implicit memories
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
procedural memory example
how to ride a bike
classical conditioning
type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli and anticipate events
what are 3 things that are automatically processed without conscious effort?
space, time, frequency
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
How many pieces of information can we hold in short-term memory. Who proposed this?
7+-2
George Miller
what age group does task-switching not effect?
none, task switching/multitasking for all age groups is worse than focusing on 1 task at a time
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units that often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
what occurs when people process information in an area they have developed expertise in?
they form hierarchies, they are composed of broad categories that divide into subcategories (flowchart)
spacing effect
tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
What are the results of massed practice?
speedy short-term learning and more confidence (false or not)
Forgetting the material quicker
Effects of distributed practice
better long-term recal
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level
ex. based on structure or appearance of words (structural encoding, phonemic encoding)
Deep Processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words and yields the best retention
What type of information do people excel at remembering?
personally relevant information
self-reference effect
tendency to remember self-relevant information
semantic
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
episodic
Explicit memory of personally experienced events
What are the 2 conscious memory systems?
Semantic and episodic
How do our schemas effect memory processing?
New explicit memories are more readily stored if they fit within existing schemas than if they don’t
What are the brain regions that process and store new explicit memories and episodes?
Frontal lobes and hippocampus
What part of the brain is activated when you remember a memory
Prefrontal cortex for working memory processing
What type of memory does the left frontal lobe hold?
Calculative memories, semantic
What type of memory does the right frontal lobe hold
Visual scenes, episodic
Hippocampus function in memory
Processes explicit memories of facts and events for storage
What happens to the hippocampus’s ability to process memories as we age?
It grows, enabling people to be able to construct more detailed memories
What occurs if there is damage to the hippocampus?
The formation of explicit memories are disrupted and the recall of them degrade
What does the rear end of the hippocampus do?
Processes spatial memory
Are memories stored permanently in the hippocampus?
no
How does the hippocampus act as a loading dock?
It is the region where the brain registers and temporarily holds the elements of an episode, then it moves it to the cortex
memory cosolidation
Neural storage of a long-term memory, hippocampus to cortex
What supports memory consolidation?
sleep
Cerebellum function in memory
Forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning
What happens to memory if the cerebellum is damaged?
People are unable to develop certain conditioned reflexes, like associating smoke with fire
Basal ganglia function in memory
Facilitates the formation of our procedural memories for skills
How do strong emotions contribute to memory?
Strong emotions make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, improving memory
What provokes the amygdala to make a memory trace?
stress
memory trast
lasting physical change as the memory forms
Amygdala function in memory
Improves memory in emotionally-charged situations
How do emotional events effect attention?
Attention and recall is focused on high priority information while irrelevant details are reduced
Flashbulb memories
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
recall
Ability to produce previously learned informationre
recognition
ability to identify previously learned items
Retrospective memory
The past
prospective memory
Intended future actions
Priming (mem)
Activation of certain associations predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
Is priming implicit or explicit
Implicit because it occurs without conscious awareness
Encoding specificity principle
Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
Context dependent meory
Memory is effected by the cues we have associated with that context
State dependent memory
What is learned in one state of being is more easily recalled when we are in that state again
mood congruent memories
Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Serial position effect
Tendency to recall the last items in a list and the first items in a list after a delay
Receny effect
Tendency to recall the last items in a list the best
Primacy effect
Tendency to recall the first items in a list after a delay
Interleaving
Retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to remember information from one’s past
What occurs when people with anterograde amnesia learn something?
Their automatic processing was still active and working so they were able to learn a skill but unable to remember consciously learning it
Encoding failure
The inability to encode working/short term memory ino long-term memory
displacement
Information that isn’t encoded in long term storage being forgotten as new information enters short-term memory
Storage decay
Gradual fading of information stored in the brain over time due to the passage of time or lack of use
Retrieval failure
Failure to retrieve memories from long term memory
Proactive interference
Forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
Backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
Why is the information presented in the hour before sleep more remembered?
There are less interfering events between the information presented and sleep
Repression
Psychoanalytic theory that a basic defense mechanism blocks memories due to undesirable memories
reconsolidation
Process in which previously stored memories are potentially altered before being stored again
Misinformation effect
Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading informaion
Source amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
Deja vu
Sense that an event has been experienced before due to cues from the current situation unconsciously triggering retrieval of an earlier experience
Imagination Inflation
Memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred
Infantile Amnesia
Inability to remember events from early childhood
Elaborative rehearsal
Linking of new information to material that is already known
Maintenance Rehearsal
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short term memory
Method of Loci
Mnemonic device that involves imagining placing items you want to remember along a route you know well, or in specific locations in somewhere familiar
Hierachies
systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes
Structural encoding
Shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
Phonemic encoding
Encoding of sounds
Procedural memory
Implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
Apparent movement
Perception that a stationary object is moving
Gambler’s Fallacy
fallacy of thinking that future probabilities are altered by past events
Sunk Cost Fallacy
making decisions about a current situation based on what one has previously invested in the situation
Autobiographical memory
Special form of episodic memory consisting of a person’s recollection of his or her life experiences
intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Who thought of the theory of general intelligence
Charles Spearman
General intelligence
A factor that underlies all mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test
Factor analysis
A statistical procedure that identities clusters of related items used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlies a perron’s total score
Who was Spearman’s critic
L.L Thurstone
What was LL Thurstone’s contribution to the theory of general intelligence
He identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities and tested people’s intelligence based on them. His experiment ultimately proved the existence of a g factor
What did Cattel and Horn contribute to the theory of general intelligence
Fluid intelligence and crystaliized intelligence
fluid intelligence
ability to reason quickly and abstractly
crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge
Cattel-Horn-Carrol theory
Intelligence is based on a g factor as well as specific abilities, Gf and Gc
What was behind the theory of multiple inntelligences
Howard Gardner
What are the 8 independent intelligences
Naturalist
interpersonal
intrapersonal
social-kinesthetic
spatial
musical
logical-mathematical
linguistic
what is savant syndrome
condition where a person is limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
What does Sternberg’s triarchic theory propose
3 measured intelligences
Analytical, Creative, and Practical
grit
Passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long time goals
How long does it take to become an expert
10 years of consistent deliberate practice
Who was behind the idea of social intelligence
Edward Thorndike
emotional intelligence
Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
What is perceiving emotions
Recognizing them
What is understanding emotions
Predicting them and how they might change
What is managing emotions
knowing how to express them in situations and how to handle others emotions
What is using emotions
To facilitate adaptive and creative thinking
Intelligence test
Method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others
achievement tests
Assesses what has been learned
aptitude tests
Designed to predict a person’s future performance, capacity to learn
collectivism
Collective welfare of the family, community, and society
individualism
promoting individual oppurtunity
What is Francis Galton best known for
Believed intelligence and ability stemmed from genetics
founded the eugenics movement and forced sterilization for those lacking
When did modern intelligence testing start
Early 20th century in France
Mental age
Measure of intelligence test, level of performance associated with children of a certain chronological age
What did Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon assume about child development
All child follow the same intellectual development but some develop more rapidly
Who was behind mental age
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
What was Alfred Binet’s intent behind developing mental age
To improve children’s education
Stanford-Binet
American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test
How did Lewis Terman modify Binet’s test
He adding new items, established new age norms and extended the test from 12 year old’s to adults
Intelligence quotient
(Mental age / chronological age) x 100 = iq
the average performance for an age is 100
Who developed iq?
William Stern
How are modern intelligence test governed
IQ now represents the test-taker’s performance relative to the average performance to others of the same age
Did Terman’s view align more with Galton or Binet
Galton, believed in eugenics and that ethnic groups were genetically inferior
Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale & the Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children
Most widely used intelligence test that contains many subtests
Who created the WAIS and the WISC
David Wechsler
What does the WAIS give results on
Intelligence score
verbal comprehension
perceptual reasoning
working memory
processing speed
What must a psychological test have to be accepted
Psychometric properties of being standardized, reliable, and valid
psychometric
Scientific study of the measurements of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
standardization
Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Normal curve
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve where most scores fall near the mean
Flynn Effect
Rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures
Who created/noticed the Flynn Effect
James Flynn
What contributed the most to IQ score growth
Economic growth
What lead to regional reversals in IQ
Poverty, discrimination, educational inequities
reliability
Extent to which a test yields consistent results
How is reliability assessed?
Consistency of:
- 2 halves of the test
- alternative forms of the test
- retesting
Split-half
Agreement of odd-numbered question scores and even-numbered question scores
If the correlation between the scores are higher, is the test more or less reliable
More reliable
validity
Extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Content validity
Extent to which a test samples the behaviors that is of interest
construct validity
How much a test measures a concept or trait
Predictive validity
Success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
How is predictive validity assessed
By computing correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
Are general aptitude tests predictive
No, they predict early school grades but weaken in later school years
Why do general aptitude test scores become less predictive
The range of scores in a school or area are similar, making it harder to determine things
Do intelligence test scores become more or less consistent with age
More consistent and stable
Who was the originator of the idea that mental ability decreased with age, was he correct or not
David Wechsler, he was incorrect
Does intelligence remain stable or unstable as we age
stable
Do cross sectional studies suggest that intelligence declines or remains stable
decline
Do longitudinal method studies suggest that intelligence declines or remains stable
stable
Crystallized intelligence increases with age, True or Flase
True
Fluid Intelligence decreases with age. True or False
True
heritability
Portion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attributes to genes
If a group of students were raised exactly the same, would heritability increase or decrease
Increase since the differences would have to be contributed to genetics
Is intelligence polygenetic
es
Do adopted children share mental similarities with their adoptive families
Adopted children tend to share more mental similarities with their biological parents than their adopted parents
Growth mindset
Focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed
fixed mindset
view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable
Are boys or girls smarter
Their intelligence score are extremely similar with minor differences
What are 2 agreed upon facts on group differences
Racial and ethnic groups mostly overlap but differ in intelligence scores
high scoring groups are more likely to obtain high levels to education and income
Stereotype threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stererotype
Stereotype lift
Being exposed to situations that create stereotype threat in outgroup members may improve performance
