Unit 1_Intro, Aging & Necrosis Flashcards by Danielle Pieri

What are two polynucleotides formed in a double helix that contains genetic material for cell function, growth, and reproduction?

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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What is a hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and is transcribed into an RNA molecule that may function directly or be translated into an amino acid chain?

Gene

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What is a linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells that carries the genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary information (23 pairs in humans)?

Chromosome

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What are total genetic content contained in DNA known as?

Genomes

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What are different types of cell injury?

Ischemia
Infectious agents
Immune (over) reactions
Genetic factors
Nutritional factors
Physical factors
Chemical factors

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What type of cell injury occurs when blood flow is insufficient leading to oxygen deprivation in the cell?

Hypoxia (partial deprivation of oxygen supply) and Anoxia (total deprivation of oxygen supply) can occur.

Examples include suffocation/drowning; pneumonia; anemia; carbon monoxide poisoning; myocardial infarction; stroke.

Ischemia

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What kind of Ischemia cell injury includes partial deprivation of oxygen supply?

Hypoxia

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What kind of Ischemia cell injury includes total deprivation of oxygen supply?

Anoxia

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What type of cell injury includes bacteria, viruses, etc.?
These invade tissue and release toxins –> cell death and lysis –> spread of infection.

Infectious agents

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What type of cell injury includes allergies, anaphylactic reactions, and autoimmune disorders?

Immune (over) reactions

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What type of cell injury includes chromosomal abnormalities, gene mutations, as well as Down syndrome, Huntington’s chorea, sickle cell anemia?

Genetic factors

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What type of cell injury includes malnutrition and obesity, as well as reduced protein synthesis, amino acid deficiencies?

Nutritional factors

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What type of cell injury includes trauma and examples include motor vehicle accidents, gunshot wounds, extreme temperatures (burns), radiation?

Physical factors

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What type of cell injury includes heavy metals, medications such as acetaminophen that are lethal in high doses?

Chemical factors

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What results from a combination of accumulating cellular damage (e.g., by free radicals), reduced capacity to divide (replicative senescence), reduced ability to repair damaged DNA, and defective protein homeostasis?

Cellular aging

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What type of cellular aging includes defective DNA repair mechanisms; conversely, caloric restriction may activate DNA repair and slow aging in model organisms?

Accumulation of DNA damage

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What type of cellular aging includes reduced capacity of cells to divide secondary to progressive shortening of chromosomal ends (telomeres)?

Replicative senescence

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What type of cellular aging keeps good protein formations and reduce malformations?

Defective protein homeostasis

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What type of cellular aging includes caloric restriction increases longevity? Mediators may reduce IGF-1 signaling and increase sirtuins.

Nutrient sensing system

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What type of reversible cell injury includes the following:
- Swelling
- Mitochondria less efficient
- Reduced protein synthesis
- If nucleus is undamaged, cell can recover

Acute

What type of reversible cell injury includes the following:

Adaptations occur to improve the ability for cell survival

Atrophy
- Reduction in cell/organ size
- Aging: bone loss, muscle wasting, brain cell loss
- Pathological: ischemia, malnutrition (cachexia), etc.

Hypertrophy
- Increase in cell/organ size
- Exercise stress
- Pathological: cardiac hypertrophy (left ventricle)

Hyperplasia
- Increase in number of cells
- Example: callus formation
- Neoplasm: abnormal growth

Metaplasia
- Change in cell structure/function
- Thickening of respiratory epithelium in smokers

Dysplasia
- Increase in cell numbers with structural change
- Abnormal growths

Chronic

What type of chronic reversible cell injury includes:
- Reduction in cell/organ size
- Aging: bone loss, muscle wasting, brain cell loss
- Pathological: ischemia, malnutrition (cachexia), etc.

Atrophy

What type of chronic reversible cell injury includes:
- Increase in cell/organ size
- Exercise stress
- Pathological: cardiac hypertrophy (left ventricle)

Hypertrophy

What type of chronic reversible cell injury includes:
- Increase in number of cells
- Example: callus formation
- Neoplasm: abnormal growth

Hyperplasia

What type of chronic reversible cell injury includes: - Change in cell structure/function - Thickening of respiratory epithelium in smokers

Metaplasia

What type of chronic reversible cell injury includes: - Increase in cell numbers with structural change - Abnormal growths

Dysplasia

What type of irreversible cell injury includes the following: - Cell size: Enlarged (swelling) - Nucleus: Pyknosis --> karyorrhexis --> karyolysis - Plasma membrane: Disrupted - Cellular contents: Enzymatic digestion; may leak out of cell - Adjacent inflammation: Frequent - Physiologic or pathologic role: Invariably pathologic (culmination of irreversible cell injury)

Necrosis

What type of irreversible cell injury includes the following: - Cell size: Reduced (shrinkage) - Nucleus: Fragmentation into nucleosome-size fragments - Plasma membrane: Intact; altered structure, especially orientation of lipids - Cellular contents: Intact; may be released into apoptotic bodies - Adjacent inflammation: No - Physiologic or pathologic role: Often physiologic, means of eliminating unwanted cells; may be pathologic after some forms of cell injury, especially DNA damage

Apoptosis

What occurs when microorganisms or toxins enter the bloodstream? Endotoxins induce cytokine synthesis and interleukins that create systemic infection.

Sepsis (infection)

What occurs when cardiovascular failure due to endothelial cell damage, decreased plasma volume, and poor blood flow happens?

Septic shock

What are chemical cell injuries that include reactive oxygen species (ROS)? - Positive effects: fight inflammation, kill bacteria, regulate autonomic nervous system - Negative effects: oxidative stresses that lead to heart disease, diabetes, cataracts, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer. - Caused by prolonged exercise, irradiation, ultraviolet or fluorescent light, pollutants, tobacco, pesticides

Free radical formations

What are chemical cell injuries that include neutralize free radicals? - Endogenous antioxidants: enzymatic and nonenzymatic defense systems within cells - Exogenous antioxidants: vitamin C, vitamin E

Antioxidants

What are chemical cell injuries that include decreased NO availability associated with cardiovascular disease, and nitroglycerin converts to NO in blood; relaxes blood vessels?

Nitric Oxide (NO)

What are chemical cell injuries that include increased NO production and improved antioxidant defense and regulation of repair systems? Overtraining can lead to reduced ability to fight infections.

Exercise and free radicals

What type of necrosis includes the following: * Small area of general ischemia * Tissue firm and red, resembles egg white after boiling * Protein becomes denatured

Coagulative Necrosis

What type of necrosis includes the following: - Cells die and disintegrate - Disintegrated cells clump together - Creates soft granular mass - “Cheesy” appearance

Caseation Necrosis

What type of necrosis includes the following: - Abscess Formation - Liquefaction of regional tissue by lysosomal enzymes - Note drainage from the liquefied area

Liquefactive Necrosis

What type of necrosis includes the following: - Fatty Change resulting in cell death - Fats bind calcium and cause dystrophic calcification - “Chalky” appearance

Fatty Necrosis

What type of necrosis includes the following: - Occurs on the endothelial lining of blood vessels. - Accumulation of Plasma proteins and cellular debris - Form “sludge” deposits on vessel walls - Caused by: Autoimmune vasculitis Organ Transplant rejection

Fibrinoid Necrosis

What traits are manifested by a particular allele that does not manifest itself in the presence of other alleles that generate traits dominant to it; must be present in double dose to be expressed?

Recessive traits

What occurs when one allele masks or suppresses the expression of its partner?

Dominant gene

What are genes coding for the same trait and found at the same locus on homologous chromosomes?

Alleles

What are two alleles controlling a trait are the same?

Homozygous

What are two alleles controlling a trait are different?

Heterozygous

What is one’s genetic makeup or genes?

Genotype

What is observable expression of the genotype?

Phenotype

What is the altered function resulting in disease, injury, or death?

Pathophysiology

When can systemic infection occur?

Microorganisms or toxins enter the bloodstream (from a localized infection to systemic infection). Endotoxins induce cytokine synthesis and interleukins that create systemic infection, which could lead to septic shock.