Unit 1 : Chapters 1 and 2 Flashcards
protein
strings of amino acids
genes
sections of DNA that code for protein
nucleotides
a collection of neurons within the central nervous system
4 types of nucleotides for DNA
guanine, cytosine, thymine, adenine
- thymine linked with adenine
- guanine linked with cytosine
4 types of nucleotides for RNA
guanine, cytosine, uracil, and adenine
- uracil linked with adenine
- guanine linked with cytosine
DNA and RNA
both consists of a long strand of chemicals called nucleotides
transcription
a single strand of DNA is copied into RNA
translation
mRNA -> protein
- each codon (trio of RNA nucleotides on mRNA copy) codes for on amino acids
- ribosomes read mRNA and spit out proteins based on reading of mRNA codons
southern blots
tissue type : ground up
Purpose : identify IF a particular gene (DNA) is present
northern blots
Tissue type : ground up
Purpose : identify IF and HOW MUCH of a particular mRNA is present
western blots
tissue type : ground up
purpose : identify IF and HOW MUCH of a particular PROTEIN is present
in situ hybridization (ISH)
tissue type : slices
purpose : identify WHERE a particular mRNA is present
immunochemistry
tissue type : sections
purpose : identify WHERE a particular PROTEIN is present
dendrites
one of the extensions of the cell body through which synaptic inputs are recieved
neurons
consist of dendrites, cell body, axon, and axon terminals
cell body
the region of a neuron that is defined by the presence of cell nucleus
-aka soma
axon
a single extension from the nerve cell that carries action potentials from the cell body to other neurons
axon terminals
the end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell
process of southern blot
take tissue, grind it up and then analyze it
process of northern blot
take tissue, grind it up, and then analyze it
process of in situ hybridization
take slice of tissue, expose tissue to complimentary string of RNA which is labeled with fluroscent dye to visualize the tissue
process of western blot
take tissue, grind it up, and run the ground up tissue through gel electrophoresis, then transfer proteins from gel to membrane (blotting)
process for immunocytochemistry
take tissue sections and expose sections to antibodies
-antibodies are labeled to enable visualization
gel electrophoresis
uses electric current to seperate proteins by size
glial cells
nonneural brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support to the brain
types of glial cells
astrocytes, microglia, schwann cells and oligodendrocytes
are neurons or glial cells larger?
neurons are larger and produce readily measured electrical signals and do most of the work in the brain
astrocytes
removes waste products and cause blood vessels to dilate to bring in more nutrients of times of increased brain activity
microglia
small cells that remove waste, viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms
oligodendrocytes
builds myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system)
schwann cells
builds mylein sheaths around certain neurons in the peripheral nervous system
axon collaterals
a branch of an axon from a single neuron
motor neurons
a nerve cell in the brain or spinal cord that transmits motor messages, stimulation a muscle or gland
sensory neurons
a neuron that is directly affected by changes in the environment such as light, odor, or touch
differences between axons and dendrites
- axons are one per neuron and dendrites are many per neuron
- dendrites are shorter than axons
- axons are present in the axon hillock
- axons are same size, until start of terminal branching and dendrites are bigger close to cell body and then gets smaller
interneurons
a neuron that receives input from and sends output to other neurons
ganglion
collection of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
nucleus
collection of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system
tract
bundle of axons in the central nervous system
nerve
bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system
gray matter
tissue comprised of cell bodies and dendrites
white matter
tissue comprised of axons
- it is white because of the myelin sheath
afferent
axons ARRIVING into a structure
efferent
axons EXITING a structure
contralateral
opposite side of body
ipsilateral
same side of the body
projections
axons going to another structure
golgi stain
a cell stain that fills a small proportion of neurons with a dense, dark product
nissl stain
a cell stain that reveals all cell bodies by staining RNA
tracing pathways
uses anterograde or retrograde tracers or labels
- cells in one structure send axons to other structures to determine how one structure is connected to another
anterograde tracers
taken up by body cells and transported to axon terminals
- can see where cells send their afferents
retrograde tracers
taken up by axon terminals and transported back to cell bodies
- can see where efferents to a structure come from
5 cranial nerves, number, sensory function and motor function
Olfactory
- number 1
- sensory function: smell
- no motor function
Optic
- number 2
- sensory function : vision
- no motor function
Facial
- number 8
- sensory function : tongue, soft palate
- motor function : facial muscles, salivary glands, and tear glands
Glossopharyngeal
- number 9
- sensory function : taste, and other mouth sensations
- motor function : throat muscles
Vagus
- number 10
- sensory function : information from internal organs
motor function : internal organs
rostral
in brain - front of brain
in body - upward in spine
caudal
in brain - back of brain
in body - downward in spine
dorsal
in brain - top of brain
in body - back of body
ventral
in brain - bottom of brain
in body - front of body
superior
higher
inferior
lower
anterior
front
posterior
back
what parts are in the central nervous system?
oligodendrocytes, nucleus and tracts
what parts are in the peripheral nervous system?
schwann cells, ganglion and nerves
CT Scan
resolution: great image resolution
process: x-rays moving around head to build image
- whole brain scan but does not show brain activity
MRI
resolution: great image resolution (better than CT)
process: magnets alter protons’ orientation in cells, produce radio waves that differ depending on tissue density
- whole brain scan but does not show brain activity
DTI
resolution: good image resolution
process: uses MRI signals that reflects the diffusion of water molecules - good for visualizing pathways
- whole brain scan but does not show brain activity
PET Scans
resolution: good image resolution
process: radioactive chemicals (glucose) injected into blood, which is taken up by neurons in more active brain regions
- whole brain scan that measures activity
fMRI
resolution: lower image resolution than fMRI, good temporal resolution
process: measures changes in oxygenated blood (active regions demand more oxygen in blood) using BOLD signal
- whole brain scan that measures activity
Optical Imaging
resolution: decent image resolution, good temporal resolution
process: use near-infrared light to image only cortex - reveals activity and blood flow
TMS
resolution: N/A
process: alters activity by providing magnetic currents at specific region of cortex
MEG
resolution: VERY good temporal, good image combined with MRI
process: measures local magnetic fields given off by cortex to create image of activity
What does the forebrain consist of?
Cerebral Hemispheres
- cortex
- basal ganglia
-limbic system
Diencephalon
-thalamus
-hypothalamus
What does the hindbrain consist of?
Metencephalon
- cerebellum
-pons
Myelencephalon (medulla)
what does the central nervous system consist of?
Forebrain - the anterior division of the brain
Midbrain - middle division of the brain
Hindbrain - posterior division of the brain
Spinal Cord - connects lower back to brain and carries nerve signals to help you sensations and move your body
What does the peripheral nervous system?
somatic nerves and autonomic ganglia and nerves
what does the somatic nerves consist of?
cranial nerves and spinal nerves
what does the autonomic ganglia and nerves consist of?
-sympathetic division
-parasympathetic division
-enteric nervous system
what are the four lobes of the brain?
frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal
what is the glymphatic system?
brain’s version of lymphatic system involving glial cells
meniges
three protective sheets of tissue that surround brain and spinal cord
- dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater
-arachnoid contains cerebrospinal fluid
synapse
gap at the end of a neuron that allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the next
