Ultimate

Question 0

aptitude

Answer 0

narrower than ability but broader than capacity, refers to the part of ability resulting from a combination of genetic endowments and environmental experiences with music other than formal music education. Aptitude is not developedknowledge, understanding, learned or acquired abilities (skills) orattitude. Theinnatenature of aptitude is in contrast to achievement, which represents knowledge or ability that is gained throughlearning

Question 1

absolute expressionism?

Answer 1

This idea has been elegantly expounded by Meyer (1956), who contrasts ‘formalism’ with ‘expressionism’. The former, he explains, sees the meaning of music as lying at a primarily intellectual level, and therefore demanding an understanding of the musical relationships contained in a given work. Expressionism on the other hand sees those same musical relationships as being capable of exciting moods or emotions in the listener. Meyer, however, elaborates on this distinction, and points out that an expressionist view does not necessarily imply that music produces human reactions without reference to the non-musical world. On the contrary, we can argue that music does have an effect of an emotional kind on people, but that the process by which it does so can best be understood by reference to non-musical concepts, events, and situations. In other words, music has its effect because of things we have learned or experienced.

Ex. When we listen to music from a culture which does not use Western musical conventions, or with which we are very unfamiliar, it often sounds meaningless, and probably boring too.

Andrew would say: Where music’s subjective meaning comes from within the work as well as artistic cultural influences surrounding it. Where musical forms like ABA can be related to life struxtured.

Question 2

beta blocking drugs

Answer 2

inhibits the beta response (release of adrenaline). It will not affect the way we think not directly. More specifically, they block the action ofendogenouscatecholaminesepinephrine (adrenaline) andnorepinephrine(noradrenaline) -in particular onadrenergic beta receptors, of thesympathetic nervous system, which mediates thefight-or-flight response.Some block all activation ofβ-adrenergic receptorsand others are selective.
Also note that they are widely used, have questionable ethical issues and are dangerous for diabetics, people with asthma or heart peoblems. Furthermore in 10% of cases people feel nautilus or have depressive symptoms.

Question 3

biofeedback

Answer 3

:is the process of gaining greater awareness of manyphysiologicalfunctions primarily using instruments that provide information on the activity of those same systems, with a goal of being able to manipulate them at will.Some of the processes that can be controlled includebrainwaves,muscle tone,skin conductance,heart rateandpainperception. Biofeedback may be used to improve health, performance, and the physiological changes that often occur in conjunction with changes to thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Question 4

brain plasticity: neuroplasticity

Answer 4

is made by dynamic shifts in the strength of pre-existing connections across distributed neural networks. These rapid, ongoing changes may be followed by the establishment of new connections through dendritic growth and arborisation, which are not due to an occasional activity but rather an ongoing state throughout the life span. Neuroplasticity implies that there are 2 definitive steps in the process of learning, which would be a) rapid reinforcement of pre-established organic pathways and b) later formation of new pathways. Formation of new pathways is possible only following initial reinforcement of pre-existent connections.

Question 5

capacity

Answer 5

a narrower term yet, refers to part of a person’s ability that he or she possesses as a result of genetic endowment and maturation. To the extent that musical capacity increases, it increases regardless of environmental influences.

Question 6

centration:

Answer 6

is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others.[1]A term introducedJean Piaget to refer to the tendency of young children to focus attention on only one salient aspect of an object, situation, or problem at a time, to the exclusion of other potentially relevant aspects. Ex. a child watches while a number of objects are set out in a row and then moved closer together, and the child is asked whether there are now more objects, fewer objects, or the same number of objects. Most children in thepre-operationalstage of development focus on the relative lengths of the rows without taking into account their relative densities or the fact that nothing has been added or taken away, and conclude that there are fewer objects than before. The process of cognitive development by which a child develops from centration to a more objective way of perceiving the world is called decentration or decentering.
Could also use ex. That children can only hear melody or harmony, but not both at the same time up to about 10yrs

Question 7

chromesthesia:

Answer 7

is a type ofsynesthesiain which heard sounds automatically and involuntarily evoke an experience of color. As with other variations of synesthesia, individuals with sound-color synesthesia perceive the synesthetic experience spontaneously, and without effort, and in a way that the individual learns to accept as normal within their realm of experience. Also, in chromesthesia, a consistent relation exists between color brightness and tonal pitch: Bright colors accompany high pitches, whereas dark colors accompany low pitches

Andrew might add Scriabin experienced this and more generally it is where one sense modality elicits/invokes a response/sensation from another sense modality.

Question 8

Cognitive restructuring

Answer 8

:is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or maladaptive thoughts known as cognitive distortions,[1]such asall-or-nothing thinking (splitting),magical thinking, filtering, over-generalization, magnification,[2]andemotional reasoning, which are commonly associated with many mental health disorders. Reframing of negative thoughts to cope with anxiety, not pavlovian method but cognitive. MPA STRATEGY. REFRAMES NEGATIVE THOUGHTS, as proposed by Greene. Shifts focus back to music.

Question 9

Counterconditioning:is

Answer 9

the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to astimulusinto a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus.[1]For example, when training adog, a person would create a positive response by petting or calming the dog, when the dog reacts anxiously or nervously to a stimulus. Therefore this will associate the positive response with the stimulus. It changes perception.

Question 10

Piagetian conservation:refers to

Answer 10

alogical thinkingability which, according to thepsychologistJean Piaget, is present in children during the preoperational stageof their development at ages 4–5, but develops in theconcrete operationalstage at ages 7–11.Conservation refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size.

Question 11

corpus callosum:

Answer 11

also known as the callosalcommissure, and meaning tough body, is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers beneath thecortexin theeutherianbrainat thelongitudinal fissure. It connects the left and right cerebral hemispheresand facilitates interhemispheric communication.

Question 12

Dystonia:

Answer 12

syndrome characterized by involuntary sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements, or abnormal postures. AIf these symptoms are restricted to one body part, the syndrome is termed ‘‘focal dystonia”.

In class it was referred to as a negative case of neuroplasticity, wheeby misregulated neural networks cause the above mentioned symptoms.
Likely due to overpracticing with force.
Treatment could be using limbs in different way, like using fingers to read Braille

Question 13

Electroencephalography(EEG) is

Answer 13

the recording ofelectricalactivity along thescalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within theneuronsof thebrain. EEG is most often used to diagnoseepilepsy, which causes obvious abnormalities in EEG readings.It is also used to diagnosesleep disorders,coma,encephalopathies, andbrain death.

Question 14

Formalism:

Answer 14

Inmusic theoryand especially in the branch of study called theaesthetics of music,formalismis the concept that acomposition’smeaningis entirely determined by itsform. I’.e. from within the work.

Question 15

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences:

Answer 15

Gardner (1993, 1999) developed and refined a theory of multiple intelligences that is attractive to music educators and other individuals concerned with music’s role in the human experience because it includes a musical intelligence. Gardner’s (1993) first set of intelligences (1993) also included linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences. Later (1999, pp. 48–60), he added a “naturalist” intelligence and, while not adding it to the list, discussed a possible spiritual or existential intelligence. It suggests we may all have doffering or unknown intelligence in these domains.

Question 16

inter- and intrajudge reliability:

Answer 16

inter-rater reliability,inter-rater agreement, orconcordanceis the degree of agreement among raters. It gives a score of how muchhomogeneity, or consensus, there is in the ratings given by judges. intra-rater reliabilityis the degree of agreement among repeated administrations of a diagnostic test performed by a single rater.

Question 17

James-Lange theory of emotion:

Answer 17

the common sense theory of emotion states firstly, something is perceived and that this then produces an emotional feeling or mental affect, which in the end produces a particular kind of behavioural response. In other words, the man turns the corner of the street and sees the tiger; this causes him to feel fear, which in turn causes him to act by running away. A challenge to this view of the emotions is the so-called James-Lange theory of emotion outlined by William James (1884) In essence, James altered the order so that the behaviour came between the perception and the affect or emotion. In other words we do not cry because we feel sad but rather we feel sad because we cry. In a similar way, James would argue that we feel fear because we run away, we feel angry because we punch someone, we feel shame because we hide, and so on. Stated in this way, we see a theory of the nature of emotions which stresses an inner rather than an outer cause.

Perception-emotion-behaviour (common sense process of emotion)
Perception-behaviour-emotion (the James Lange theory)

Question 18

Mozart Effect:

Answer 18

A set of research results indicating that listening toMozart’s music may induce a short-term improvement on the performance of certain kinds of mental tasks known as “spatial-temporal reasoning.

Question 19

Musical ability :

Answer 19

Does not depend on superior auditory acuity. Ability, a broad term defying precise definition, refers to being able to do something regardless of how a person acquired the necessary knowledge, skills, and experience. In an effort to provide a more explicit view of musical ability, Hallam labelled as “playing an instrument or singing; musical communication; valuing, appreciating, and responding to music; composition, improvisation, and related skills; commitment, motivation, personal discipline, and organization; and rhythmic ability, pitch skills, and understanding.”
active musical performance is viewed as a strong indicator of ability
The influence of genetic endowment on musical ability is uncertain; much evidence of familial musical accomplishment is intertwined with environmental factors.
While not everyone can learn everything, a nurturing environment iscrucial for developing musical ability.
Physical features are unimportant in musical ability, except to the extent that particular performance media may be involved.
Intelligence may be related to musical ability; that relationship maybe a function of how one conceptualizes and measures the properties.
Neither gender nor ethnicity are valid predictors of musical ability.
Musical ability probably results from an interaction of audition, physical coordination, intelligence, and experience.

Question 20

planum temporale:

Answer 20

is the cortical area just posterior to the auditory cortex (Heschl’s gyrus) within theSylvian fissure.[1]It is a triangular region which forms the heart ofWernicke’s area, one of the most important functional areas for language.[2]Original studies on this area found that the planum temporale was one of the most asymmetric regions in the brain, with this area being up to ten times larger in the left cerebral hemisphere than the right. The planum temporale is a highlylateralizedbrainstructure involved withlanguageand with music. Although the planum temporale is found to have an asymmetry in the normal population, having a leftward bias in right-handed individuals, people who possessabsolute pitchhave an increased leftward asymmetry of the planum temporale. This is due to a smaller than average volume of the right planum temporale and not a larger than average volume of the left.[8]The planum temporale may also play an important role in auditory processing with recent research suggesting that the region is responsible for representing the location of sounds in space. Eccles (1975) suggested that the physical size of the right cerebral hemisphere’s planum temporale, located just behind the primary auditory cortex, indicates genetically coded musical ability.

Question 21

referentialism:

Answer 21

music that somehow refers to sounds that are outside of music itself. Ex. Metaphors to explain how to play passages. Like program music. Meaning comes from outside music (rather than within like formalism).

Question 22

Seashore Measures of Musical Talents:

Answer 22

The Seashore Measures of Musical Talents appeared initially in 1919 and were revised extensively in 1939. By 1994, the battery was out of print.Carl Seashore The Measurement of Musical TalentsandThe Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students.

The Seashore pitch, loudness, time, and timbre tests required judgments of paired tones. The respondent respectively indicated whether the second tone was higher or lower, stronger or weaker, longer or shorter, and same or different in comparison with the first tone. Many of the differences were rather subtle, subtle enough that the fidelity of sound reproduction equipment and acoustical aspects of the testing environment could affect scores.
Seashore’s rhythm test required indicating whether the second short monotonic rhythm pattern in a pair differed from the first; in the tonal memory test, the subject indicated which tone differed in the second version of a pair of short tonal patterns.

Question 23

Split-brainis

Answer 23

a lay term to describe the result when thecorpus callosumconnecting the twohemispheres of the brainis severed to some degree. The surgical operation to produce this condition results from transection of thecorpus callosum, and is usually a last resort to treat refractoryepilepsy.

Question 24

syllogism:

Answer 24

is a kind oflogical argumentthat appliesdeductive reasoningto arrive at aconclusionbased on two or morepropositionsthat are asserted or assumed to be true.

From the combination of a general statement (the major premise) and a specific statement (the minor premise), a conclusion is deduced. For example, knowing that all men are mortal (major premise) and that Socrates is a man (minor premise), we may validly conclude that Socrates is mortal.

Question 25

Systematic desensitization

Answer 25

, also known asgraduated exposure therapyis a type ofbehavior therapyused in the field ofpsychologyto help effectively overcomephobias and otheranxiety disorders. More specifically, it is a form ofcounter conditioning, a type ofPavloviantherapy.
The process of systematic desensitization occurs in three steps.
1.the identification of an anxiety inducing stimulus hierarchy.
2.the learning of relaxation or coping techniques.
3. Once the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them in the third step to react towards and overcome situations in the establishedhierarchyof fears. The goal of this process is for the individual to learn how to cope with, and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy.

Question 26

Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale:

Answer 26

standardized ACHIEVEMENT test using sightreading ability as a measure in which errors are noted and score determined. Used in us auditions esp.

Question 27

Sweep frequency test

Answer 27

Only one sweep frequency catches target tone. Like tuning.
Davies aptitude test
Mentioned in passing, on board in class.

Question 28

What does research tell us about procedures that should be followed in order to assess musical performance as reliably as possible?

Answer 28

Notes:
Even experts are individually unreliable.
a panel of seven INFEPENDANT judges, WITH THEIR (group) average score taken epor even each judge rating again for a second time, would create safer results.
Using three judges: If the three judges talk among themselves, if they even look to each other, they are not independent anymore and the results are less reliable.

Performance is not the only variable; if you perform first, last, your reputation, how you are dressed. Use of a SCREEN increase reliability, increasing the probability of female participants to getting at final stages of competition and getting jobs. Video recordings are rated higher than audio recordings.
Rating categories are not separated from each other. They affect each other and are closely related. Creating distinct ones might help.
Evaluators that have the score or the evaluation form are MOREreliable THAN THOSE WHO HAVE BOTH togethor. Too much attention into other variables and not on the performance.
Some researchers believe that the first 15 seconds are the important moments of the presentation and rating won’t varied with longer time…. Wrong! Nonetheless, the first quarter of the duration of a piece may be enough to rate consistently end reliably.
Duration vs quality, the more time you have the more chance you have to rate the quality or lack of in a performance.
Rating technique , it helps to be a performer of the instrument that is been played.
Perhaps a computer is as reliable as 7 Independant judges, so if someone would program it, it could be a reliable alternative.

Question 29

Describe and give rationales of approaches for dealing with musical performance anxiety.

Answer 29

Williamon

Musical Anxiety:
1 in 4 musicians suffers from musician’s anxiety. 1 in 6 thinks it is a serious problem. These statistic don’t even count the people that drop out of music for this reason.

Musicians anxiety, is a syndrome, with physiological symptoms.
Physiological; increase in blood pressure, sweaty hands, dry mouth
Behavioural: shaking, tremors in hands and legs.
Cognitive: maladaptive thoughts, catastrophizing, blaming, negative self-talking.
How does this develop. Children as young as 3 or 4 can suffer from MA.
Classical conditioning: (Pavlov)
Un-conditioned stimuli (meat)
Un-conditioned response (salivation)
Conditioned stimulus (bell) associated with meat. Now the bell produces salivation.
Small amount of anxiety can be helpful, in performance situations seems to improve the performance, though it can produce uneven speed up, dynamic contrast minimized. It may interfere with your breathing, shakes the bow in string players, etc.
One of the two conceptions of how it develops

Classical all school

Conditioned stimulus——————————————————–conditioned response
(bell) (salivating)
(performance situation) (fear, anxiety)

Unconditioned stimulus ——————————————————— unconditioned response
(meat)
In kids (pain) ———————————————————————– (fear)
(negative evaluation) fear

Cognitive distortion
No matter how poorly you play, nothing terrible is going to happen, you are going to be ok. But for some reason the actual nature of the thought create distortion and creates fear. If you get yourself to think positively, the less anxiety you are going to feel.

Both approaches are valid, but the treatments would be radically different.
Folk remedies (no researched remedies) “eat a banana”, “practice more” the more you practice the more important you think the performance is. Not necesarilly good methods
There is research about exercise and performance, If you exercise the day before a performance you would feel less anxious.
Beta blockers: inhibits the beta response (release of adrenaline). It will not affect the way we think not directly.
Systematic desensitization: to weakend the conditioned stimulus –response relationship.
Reciprocal inhibition: by doing three step process:
Identify anxiety and develop a hierarchic list.
Relaxation: progressive relaxation (tensing and relaxing one muscle at the time)
Counter conditioning. Using the hierarchy, from minimally to highly anxiety evoking. Then by imaging this anxiety statements the individual needs to maintain the relaxation throughout.
Implosive Therapy: facing the fear.
Biofeedback: some people think at it as a wholesome way to control your body. By a meditative or relaxing way affect the heart rate and muscular tension.
Neuro feedback: create a combination of alpha and theta. is a type ofbiofeedbackthat uses real-time displays of brain activity—most commonlyelectroencephalography(EEG), to teach self-regulation of brain function. Typically, sensors are placed on the scalp to measure activity, with measurements displayed using video displays or sound
Non plavovian side – cognitive restructuring
Changing the focus of the thoughts from an egocentric view to a concern with the music. Cognitive reframing: Replacing negative thoughts with positive ones. Research results are not consistent.

Question 30

How has recent research in brain function illuminated our understanding of musical experiences?

Answer 30

Vast new body of research suggests that music engages multiple areas of the brain, some of which overlap with general auditory skills, Responses to melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, and timbre are distributed’ across several regions in ways that we are only beginning to understand.
Researchers reasoned that trained ‘musicians tend to use an analytic strategy of recognizing melodies and hence capitalize on the skills of their left hemisphere. Non-musicians, on the other hand, tend to use a holistic strategy of recognizing melodies because they do not have the analytic skills that are developed through music training.

The temporal lobe is most strongly associated with auditory processing and contains the primary auditory cortices; as well as a region associated with speech perception called Wernickes area. How does music get inside the brain? Sound processing begins with the inner ear (cochlea), which responds to sound waves in a manner that results in an analysis of sounds into their component frequencies
The actions of the cochlea generate trains of neural discharges in separately tuned fibers of the auditory nerve, which ultimately propagate to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe. Brain cells in this.
The activity of a brain cell in response to changes in frequency is described as the tuning curve of that brain cell.
The parietal lobe is perhaps best known for its control of sensations such as pain and touch, but if also associated with other functions such as reading, arithmetic, and some musical skills.
The occipital lobe is best known for its role in visual perception which is also activated in musical performance and mental skills like visualization, imagery and mental rehearsal.
Without question, the right hemisphere is dominant for many important musical functions, including the recognition of pitch and timbre, the representation of melodies so that errors can be detected, performing music, keeping track of meter, and responding emotionally to music.
However, the left hemisphere is implicated in many aspects of music, including numerous rhythmic skills, as well as “language-like” skills such as sight-reading music or naming notes and pieces.
area of potential overlap is syntax. Both music and language involve discrete elements (tones, words) that are combined in meaningful and systematic ways.

In right, handed individuals, the right hemisphere is; associated with pitch discrimination tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is associated with rhythmic tasks. Timbre is also associated with the right hemisphere.
Pantev et al. (1998) also found that the younger a person began his or her music training, the greater the amount of brain activity in response to musical tones.
a structural enlargement of the planum temporale of the left hemisphere in musicians compared with non-musicians was found. Suggesting that musical experience during childhood may influence structural development of the auditory cortex.
enlargement of the planum temporale has been reported to be more pronounced for musicians with absolute pitch than for musicians with relative pitch.
Basal ganglia: associated with a variety of function including routine behaviour and voluntary motions.
Lymbic system is in charge of the emotions, amygdala (related to emotions of fear, anger, etc). is a complex set of brain structures located on both sides of thethalamus, right under thecerebrum. Definitely participating in musical performance.
How is the brain modified by musical experience? Neuro plasticity.

Question 31

Describe Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, and the implications for teaching music that arise from it.

Answer 31

Piaget’s stages are useful in showing that children fundamentally differ from adults mentally, but the stages are not as rigid as once thought and may be more appropriate in areas other than music. Developed from observations of children in natural settings, the theory hypothesizes four major developmental stages through which all children must pass in order to become mentally mature adults

Sensorimotor (0-18/24 months)
In the initial sensorimotor stage, lasting from birth until about two years of age, the child essentially moves from a type of motor intelligence to a more symbolic intelligence as voluntary movements replace reflexive behavior. During the sensorimotor stage, the child acquires object permanence (i.e., moves from a literal state of “out-of-sight, out-of-mind” to recognition that a toy or other object exists even when it is not in the child’s immediate environment).

Preoperational (2 to 7 years).
Syllogism,
Lack of Conservation, at this stage there is no reversal of logic, cannot conserve concepts to and then reverse them.
Copyright © 2012. Charles C. Thomas. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicableIn the preoperational stage, lasting roughly from ages two through seven, the child moves through various illogical and incomplete concepts. Perception dominates reason, as in a child saying that a higher or wider container holds more beads than a lower or narrower container, despite seeing equal amounts of beads placed in each container.

Concrete operations (7-11 years)
Isomorphism: conservation is an example of this. Conservation of melody and rhythm.
From roughly ages 7 through 11 or a little older, the child is in the stage of concrete operations, a time during which thought processes depend on a concrete framework. One aspect of the stage is the child’s effort to learn conservation (i.e., the recognition that changes can occur in an object’s form or spatial arrangement without changing the object’s other attributes). In volume relations, a conserving child recognizes that two initially identical amounts of water remain identical when they are poured into containers of different shapes, but a nonconserving child may insist that suddenly there is more water in a wide shallow pan than in a tall test tube, or vice versa. When the water is poured back into the original identical containers, the same child will quite easily say that the amounts of water are identical.
Conservation is of interest to some music researchers and teachers, partly because children in the concrete operations stage often are beginning formal musical training and conservation is necessary for form perception and musical analysis. Conservation’s arrival time will vary greatly with individuals, and all aspects of a developmental stage must occur; attempts to accelerate conservation are highly questionable.
Formal operations (from 11 to…..)
formal operations, where the child is capable of formal propositional thinking and can combine various grouping operations. The adolescent now can consider diverse possibilities, make “what if” judgments, and organize principles into networks. While the child/adolescent may not be “wise,” he or she now may be a mental adult.
Analogies
Abstract thinking or abstract reasoning
Transfer: you learn something in one situation and that applies to another.

Piaget’s theory probably is most applicable to the development of “scientific” thinking in Western literate societies; it may be less applicable to the arts and other cultures. Furthermore, Piaget’s operations are more content specific than they might theoretically appear; for example, a child might exhibit conservation with some materials but not with others.
Piaget’s work remains valuable because it clearly shows that children are not miniature adults. Music teachers must present material to children in ways in which the children are ready to assimilate or accommodate it.

Question 32

Describe the musical development of children in terms of vocal, motor, and perceptual, and cognitive gains over time.

Answer 32

Musical development proceeds through a sequence from in utero into adulthood, partly due to innate developments but also due to musical experience.
Infants naturally make sounds and notice their auditory environments. Ex. dadada, ma ma ma.
Young children proceed through a stage of spontaneous song, which usually is replaced by learned song.
Young children generally are more sensitive to melodic contour than to intervallic detail within a melody.
Words seem to be especially important to children in learning songs.
Children’s created notations show increasing sophistication, not only with advancing age, but also with advancing musical understanding.
Although musical learning and achievement occur at all ages, a child’s preschool and early elementary school years are important for developing musical expectancies and preferences.
As children mature until about age nine, musical ability tends to increase, largely as a matter of further cultural immersion. The sounds of the surrounding musical culture, including sounds from media as well as sounds produced in the home by children, parents, and siblings, build musical expectancies and a sense of what is appropriate musically and what is not.
Loudness seems to be one of the first things that children get very good at differentiating.
Even without formal instruction or any idea of correct labels for what they hear, the children build their musical expectancies and develop preferences.
The authors strongly believe that this is a crucial time for developing intelligent and musically sophisticated future audiences and performers. Music educators and caregivers should exploit children’s flexibility and openness to diverse musical styles during the preschool and early elementary school years before they become locked into any one style. Overly narrow musical experiences lead to restrictive expectancies, which lead to restrictive preferences. Children are more open to unfamiliar sounds than what we think.
Further progress beyond the level of learning songs from the surrounding culture, creating similar songs, and being sensitive to differing musical styles, meaning “professional” phase of musical development, requires formal instruction, especially in music performance, but also in developing more sophisticated analytical and listening skills and the ability to read and employ conventional music notation.

Question 33

What is music therapy and three populations it is used with

Answer 33

Goal oriented therapeutic intervention using music to facilitate changes in psychological, emotional or physiological domains to improve a client’s well being.
Used with Parkinson’s through rhythmic entrainment to improve walking and gait.
Used with stroke patients an
To help improve speech production, through intonation and singing therapy
Used in nicu to calm and relax newborns and provide a stimulating environment.

Question 34

Variables related to or not related to musical ability and achievement?

Answer 34

Theory of multiple intelligences, some PPP just better than others.
Culture, perhaps influences ability and achieve, esp. Interaction with gender, but gender alone does not now. Iq only effects Id one person is really low.
Physical struxture may also have an impact on both.