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AP Psychology > U7: Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Language and Problem Solving > Flashcards

U7: Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Language and Problem Solving Flashcards

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1
Q

modal model

A

memory is divided into three separate storage areas: sensory, short term, and long term
each type of memory has four components: storage capacity, duration of code, nature of code, and way by which information is lost

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2
Q

sensory memory

A

gateway between perception and memory, store is limited, sensory memory is either iconic or echoic, certain items enter short term

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3
Q

iconic sensory memory

A

visual sensory memory, store lasts for only a few tenths of a second

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4
Q

echoic sensory memory

A

auditory sensory memory, store lasts three or four seconds

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5
Q

visual persistence

A

sensory information in sensory memory remains in attention briefly; the speed of the rope or fan causes sensory information to run together

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6
Q

George Miller

A

found that information stored in the STM is primarily acoustically coded

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7
Q

short term memory

A

can hold about 7 items (plus or minus 2); items in short term are maintained by rehearsal

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8
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used

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9
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

involves organization and understanding of the information that has been encoded in order to transfer the info to LTM

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10
Q

mnemonic device

A

short words or phrases that represent long strings of info

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11
Q

dual-coding hypothesis

A

states that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

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12
Q

method of loci

A

aid for memory; involves imagining moving through a familiar place, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered

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13
Q

self-reference effect

A

it’s easier to recall things that are personally relevant

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14
Q

encoded

A

when items in the short term memory are stored and able to be recalled later in the long term memory

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15
Q

decay

A

a way items in short term are forgotten through the passage of time

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16
Q

interference

A

when short term memory items are forgotten because they are displaced by new info

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17
Q

retroactive interference

A

where new info pushes old info out of short-term memory

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18
Q

proactive interference

A

when old information makes it more difficult to learn new info

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19
Q

serial position effect

A

feature of short term memory where we store information from a list sequentially; it’s easier to remember the first few and last few items in a list better than the ones in the middle

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20
Q

primacy effect

A

remembering the first items of a list

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21
Q

recency effect

A

remembering the last items of a list

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22
Q

chunking

A

grouping items of information into units (defined by George Miller)

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23
Q

long term memory

A

the repository for all our lasting memories and knowledge
information is semantically encoded, visually encoded, and/or acoustically encoded
- information is stored as…. episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory

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24
Q

semantically encoded

A

the way in which our LTM is encoded – in the form of word meaning

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25
Q

episodic memory

A

memory for events that we ourselves experiences

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26
Q

semantic memory

A

declarative, comprises facts, figures, and general world knowledge

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27
Q

procedural memory

A

consisting of skills and habits

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28
Q

declarative (explicit) memory

A

a memory a person can consciously consider and retrieve (episodic and semantic memory)

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29
Q

nondeclarative (implicit) memory

A

memory beyond conscious consideration and would include procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning

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30
Q

context-dependent memory

A

states that information is more likely to be recalled if the attempt to retrieve it occurs in a situation similar to the situation in which it was encoded

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31
Q

state-dependent memory

A

information memorized when under the influence of a drug is easier to access when in a similar state than when not on that drug

32
Q

spreading activation

A

suggests that when trying to retrieve information, we start the search from one node. Then, that activated node spreads its activation to other nodes around it to an extent related to the strength of association between that node and each other

33
Q

flashbulb memory

A

occurs in long term; a very deep, vivid memory in the form of a visual image associated with a particular emotionally arousing event

34
Q

memory reconstruction

A

occurs when we fit together pieces of an event that seem likely

35
Q

source confusion

A

likely cause of memory reconstruction; we attribute the event to a different source than it actually came from

36
Q

framing

A

repeated suggestions and misleading questions can create false memories

37
Q

language

A

the arrangement of sounds, written symbols, or gestures to communicate ideas
key features: language is arbitrary, has a structure that is additive, has a multiplicity of structure, is productive, and is dynamic

38
Q

phonemes

A

the smallest units of speech sounds in a given language that is still distinct in sound from each other

39
Q

morphemes

A

what phonemes combine into; the smallest semantically meaningful parts of language

40
Q

semantics

A

words meaning or word choice

41
Q

prosody

A

rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech

42
Q

holophrases

A

single terms that are applied by the infant to broad categories of things

43
Q

overextension

A

an infant calling any passing woman “mama,” and it results from the infant not knowing enough words to express something fully

44
Q

underextension

A

when a child thinks that his or her “mama” is the only “mama”

45
Q

telegraphic speech

A

two or three-word groups

46
Q

overgeneralization errors

A

errors in which the rules of language are overextended “I goed to the store”

47
Q

Chompsky’s transformational grammar

A

organization of language; differentiates between the surface structure of language and deep structure of language

48
Q

surface structure of language

A

the superficial way in which the words are arranged in a text or speech

49
Q

deep structure of language

A

the underlying meaning of words

50
Q

Chompsky’s critical periods and innate language acquisition device

A

he proposed an innate language acquisition device, which facilitates the acquisition of language in children, and a critical period for learning of language

51
Q

BF Skinner on Language

A

explored the idea of the “language acquisition support system,” which is the language-rich or language-poor environment the child is exposed to while growing up

52
Q

theory of linguistic relativity

A

Whorf and Sapir; states that speakers of different languages develop different cognitive systems as a result of their differences in language

53
Q

concept

A

a way of grouping or classifying the world around us

54
Q

typicality

A

the degree to which an object fits the average

55
Q

prototype

A

the typical picture that we envision

56
Q

superordinate concept

A

very broad concept and encompasses a large group of items (i.e. concept of “food”)

57
Q

basic concept

A

smaller and more specific concept (i.e. “bread”)

58
Q

subordinate concept

A

even smaller and more specific than a basic concept (i.e. rye bread)

59
Q

cognition

A

the mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, remembering, using, and constructing knowledge

60
Q

reasoning

A

the drawing of conclusions from evidence, can be further divided into deductive and inductive reasoning

61
Q

deductive reasoning

A

the process of drawing logical conclusions from general statements

62
Q

syllogisms

A

deductive conclusions drawn from two premises

can be sound (the conclusions follows from the premises), unsound, valid (the conclusion is true), or invalid

63
Q

inductive reasoning

A

the process of drawing general inferences from specific observations

64
Q

divergent thinking

A

process of widening and thinking of many choices, brainstorming

65
Q

convergent thinking

A

requires narrowing of many choices available

66
Q

heuristics

A

intuitive rules of thumb that may or may not be useful/correct in a given situation

67
Q

availability heuristics

A

means that the rule of thumb is judged by what events come readily to mind (i.e. people thinking air travel is more dangerous than care because plane crashes are more frequently reported)

68
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

we judge objects and events in terms of how closely they match the prototype of that object or event

69
Q

algorithms

A

systematic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual answer to a problem

70
Q

insight

A

the sudden understanding of a problem that usually involves conceptualizing the problem in a new way

71
Q

mental set

A

fixed frame of mind that we use when approaching problems; make using insight harder

72
Q

functional fixedness

A

example of mental set, the tendency to assume that a given item is useful only for the task for which it was designed

73
Q

confirmation bias

A

the search for information that supports a particular view, also hinders problem-solving by distorting objectivity

74
Q

hindsight bias

A

the tendency after the fact to think you knew what the outcome would be, also distorts our ability to be situations objectively

75
Q

belief perseverance

A

a person sees only the evidence that supports a particular position, despite evidence presented to the contrary

76
Q

framing

A

the way a question is phrased; can alter the objective outcome of problem-solving or decision-making

77
Q

creativity

A

the process of producing something novel yet worthwhile

AP Psychology (13 decks)

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